UC-NRLF 


B    3    3MT    351 


Prof.  Alden  H.  Miller 


FACTORS 


*  •  • 


IN 


ORGANIC  EVOLUTION 


U 


FACTORS 


—  IN  — 


ORGANIC    EVOLUTION 


SYLLABUS    OF 

A    COURSE  OF  ELEMENTARY  LECTURES  DELIVERED  TN 
LELA.VD   STANFORD  JUNIOR    UNIVERSITY 

—  BY  — 

DAVID   STARR    JORDAN 


UNIVERSITY  PRKSS 

ICELAND  STANFORD  JVNIOR  UNIVERSITY 
CALIFORNIA 


0 

v 


N 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

The  Unrolling  of  the  Universe.   Organic  Evolution :  The 

Development  of  Forms  of  Life,     -  1 

Evolution  as  a  Working  Hypothesis,  4 

What  Evolution  Is  Not,  6 

Variety  in  Life,  9 

Unity  in  Life,      -  11 
Heredity:  The  Great  Conservative  Force  in  Evolution,          13 

Theories  of  Heredity,      -  15 

The  Cell  and  Heredity,        -  -        16 

Amphimixis,        -  19 

The  Meaning  of  Sex,  -        21 

The  Cell  Theory,  23 

The  Physical  Basis  of  Heredity,     -  -       26 

The  Inheritance  of  Acquired  Characters,  -                          28 
The  Inheritance  of  Acquired  Characters  —  Continued,    -        31 

Significance  of  Morphology,       -  34 

Ontogeny  and  Phylogeny,  -        36 

Contemporary  Evolution  of  Man,  -              37 

The  Gastrsea  Theory  of  Hseckel,     -  -        40 

The  Origin  of  the  Eye,  43 

The  Origin  of  the  Ear,  -        45 

The  Law  of  Individuality,  47 

The  Struggle  for  Existence,        '     -  48 

Response  to  External  Stimulus,  50 

Natural  Selection,    -  52 


IV  CONTENTS. 

PACK 

Natural  Selection  and  Ethics,  56 

Law  of  Self-Activity,  -        61 

Law  of  Mutual  Help,  or  Altruism,       -  64 

The  Origin  of  Goodness,       -  -       68 

Degeneration,      -  70 

Degeneration  in  Man,  -        72 

The  Industrial  Struggle  for  Existence,  75 

Isolation  as  a  Factor  in  Evolution,  -        77 

Are  Species  Real  ?  78 

Classification,  -        82 

Application  of  Theory  of  Descent  to  Taxonomy,  -              84 
Application  of  Theory  of  Descent  to  Taxonomy. —  Object 

and  Methods  of  Taxonomic  Work,  -  85 
Application  of  Theory  of  Descent  to  Taxonomy. —  Illus- 
tration of  the  Application  of  This  Method.  The 
Descent  of  the  Lepidoptera,  87 
Evolution  of  Plants,  -  91 
Evolution  of  the  Higher  Plants,  93 
Spontaneous  Generation,  -  -  95 
Man's  Place  in  Nature,  96 
Evolution  in  Social  Institutions. —  Principles,  -  -  101 
Evolution  of  Social  Institutions. —  Applications  and  Il- 
lustrations, 103 
History  of  Evolution,  -  105 
After  Darwin,  -  109 
Spencer's  Formula  of  Evolution,  -  -  110 
Present  Battle-Grounds  of  Evolution,  112 
The  Philosophy  of  Despair,  -  117 
The  Way  Out  of  Pessimism,  -  119 
Philosophy  and  Science,  -  -  122 
Religion  and  Science,  -  125 
The  Evolution  of  Religion,  -  -  -  -  127 


EVOLUTION. 


LECTURE    I. 

THE   UNROLLING   OF   THE   UNIVERSE.     ORGANIC  EVO- 
LUTION :   THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  FORMS  OF  LIFE. 

/.  Evolution  Considered  as  a  Science.  —  The  study 
of  changing  beings  as  affected  by  unchanging  laws. 

"  Nothing  endures  save  the  flow  of  energy  and  the 
rational  order  that  pervades  it."  -  -  Huxley.  No  one 
dipping  his  hand  in  the  river  can  be  twice  wet  with 
the  same  water.  Shortness  of  human  life  as  compared 
with  duration  of  world  processes.  Objects  seen  by  a 
flash  of  lightning  during  a  storm  appear  immov- 
able. So  the  phases  of  nature  seem  unchanged  to  the 
casual  observer.  His  view  so  short.  Parable  of  the 
rose  and  lily  who  thought  the  gardener  immortal. 
;'  Dauer  im  Wechsel  ":  persistence  in  change. 

Epochs  in  science  study.  "  Die  neue  Weltan- 
schauung." 

Seeing  the  objects  in  nature.  (1)  As  they  appear. 
(2)  As  they  really  are.  (3)  As  they  were  (4)  As 
they  are,  their  present  condition  being  an  inevitable 
result  of  what  they  were,  the  laws  of  their  being  lead- 
ing on  to  what  they  are  to  be. 


,  W  W.  LOCAL,  174 

-  7w    ST 

OAKLAND.  CAl 


2  ORGANIC    EVOLUTION. 

Seasons  return  because  conditions  return,  but  con- 
ditions never  return  in  the  world  of  life. 

AVhat  we  know  we  know  not  as  a  permanence,  but 
as  a  phase  of  change. 

Nothing  in  the  universe  due  to  chance  or  whim. 
Meaning  of  law.  "  The  ascertained  sequence  of 
events."-  -The  necessary  sequence  of  events.  The  fall 
of  a  leaf  follows  fixed  law  as  much  as  the  fall  of  a 
planet.  This  true  of  everything  we  can  know  of.  The 
creation  of  man  or  the  growth  of  a  state  as  much  nat- 
ural processes  as  the  formation  of  an  apple  or  the 
growth  of  a  sand-bank. 

The  exact  sciences,  those  in  which  data  are  most 
simple  or  most  accessible.  The  inexact  sciences  — 
the  sciences  of  life  are  inexact  only  because  the  human 
mind  can  never  seize  all  their  data.  The  law  of  rain. 
It  never  rains  when  it  can  do  otherwise.  A  broken 
law  means  the  failure  of  the  universe.  In  this  sense 
laws  can  never  be  broken.  The  laws  of  nature  not 
the  executors  of  human  justice.  Each  law  has  its  own 
result  and  no  other.  Each  one  tends  in  its  own  way 
toward  cosmic  order.  "  If  Clod  should  wink  at  a  single 
act  of  injustice,  the  whole  universe  would  shrivel  up 
like  a  cast-off  snake  skin." — (Arab  proverb.)  Each 
law  the  expression  of  the  best  possible  way  in  which 
causes  and  results  can  be  joined.  Emerson's  remark 
on  being  "sound  and  solvent."  The  laws  of  nature, 
expressions  of  the  soundness  and  solvency  of  the  In- 
finite force.  A  broken  law  would  be  the  expression 
of  unsoundness  and  insolvency.  The  gradual  recog- 
nition of  law  constitutes  the  progress  of  science.  Cost 
of  every  step.  Analogy  to  individual  growth. 


ORGANIC    EVOLUTION.  »> 

Science  of  Evolution  depends  on  all  other  sciences, 
and  embraces  them  all,  as  no  science  can  be  separated 
from  the  study  of  the  development  of  that  which  it 
treats.  Organic  Evolution  concerned  by  all  pheno- 
mena of  life.  Immense  literature  of  Evolution. 


LECTURE  II. 

EVOLUTION  AS  A  WORKING  HYPOTHESIS. 

77.  Evolution  as  a  Theory.  —  The  theory  of  the 
formation  of  species  by  divergence  and  development; 
in  narrower  sense,  the  theory  that  all  forms  of  life 
now  existing,  or  that  have  existed  on  the  earth, 
have  sprung  from  a  few  primitive  forms,  or,  more 
likely,  from  one.  "That  whilst  this  orb  has  gone 
circling  on  in  obedience  to  the  fixed  law  of  grav- 
ity, endless  forms  most  beautiful  and  most  wonder- 
ful have  been  or  are  being  evolved." — Darwin. 

This  theory  at  first  "  a  working  hypothesis."  All 
contrary  hypotheses  have  long  since  ceased  to  work. 
The  theory  of  Evolution  as  the  method  of  creation  of 
species  as  well  attested  as  the  theory  of  gravitation. 
All  biological  investigation  must  assume  it ;  without 
it  most  such  investigations  impossible.  Naturalists 
could  no  more  go  back  to  the  old  notion  of  separate 
creation  for  each  species  and  its  organs,  than  astron- 
omers could  go  back  to  the  pre-scientific  notions  of 
guiding  angels  as  agents  controlling  planetary  mo- 
tions. No  naturalist  whose  studies  give  him  the 
right  to  an  opinion  on  the  origin  of  species  now  holds 
this  view  ;  no  one  could  hold  it  and  look  an  animal 
in  the  face. 

///.  Evolution  as  a  Method  of  Study. —  Studying  the 
present  in  the  light  of  the  past.  The  easy  work  of 


EVOLUTION    AS    A    WORKING    HYPOTHESIS.  O 

science  mostly  done.  Those  who  would  continue 
work  must  study  not  living  objects,  but  the  laws  that 
govern  them.  "  Whether  planets,  or  mountains,  or  mol- 
lusks,  or  subjunctive  modes,  or  tribal  confederacies  be 
the  things  studied,  the  scholars  who  have  studied  them 
most  fruitfully  were  those  who  have  studied  them  as 
phases  of  development.  Their  work  has  directed 
the  current  of  thought." — John  Fiske. 

IV.  Evolution  as  a  System  of  Philosophy. — Work  of 
Herbert  Spencer,  John  Fiske,  and  others.  Systems  of 
philosophy  based  on  scientific  knowledge  can  be  re- 
written as  knowledge  progresses.  Systems  resting  on 
aphorisms,  or  definitions,  or  assumptions  must  wholly 
die  as  knowledge  increases.  Philosophy  never  iden- 
tical with  truth.  Partial  truth  in  philosophy  becomes 
absolute  falsehood  as  the  growth  of  exact  knowledge 
transforms  the  truth  to  science,  leaving  the  error. 
Conflict  between  science  and  philosophy.  Phil- 
osophy the  evanescent  perspective  in  which  the  facts 
and  phenomena  of  the  universe  are  seen.  Philos- 
ophy changes  with  the  point  of  view.  Science  the 
same  to  all  minds  capable  of  grasping  it. 


V 


LECTURE  III. 
WHAT  EVOLUTION  Is  NOT. 

I.  Not  that    "man   is   a  developed    monkey."     No 
monkeys  or  apes  now  existing  could  have  been  ances- 
tors of  primitive  man.     As  man   changes  and  diver- 
ges so  do  they.     None  of  them  conceivably  ancestors 
of    future   races    of    man.      Evolution    is   essentially 
movement  toward   better  adaptation   to  conditions  of 
life.     Movement   of    monkeys  toward  simianity,  not 
humanity.     But  all  evidence  points  toward  descent  of 
all  mammals,  of  all  vertebrates,  from  a  common  stock. 
The  simian   races  nearest  man,  and  their  divergence 
from  a  common  stock  comparatively  recent. 

II.  Not  that  all  living  forms  are  tending  toward  hu- 
manity.    Not  that   "  every  favorable  variety    of   the 
turnip  is  tending  to  become  man."-  -  Wilberforce.    Not 
"  the  growth   of  the  highest  alga  into  a  zoophyte,  a 
phenomenon  for  which  sharp  eyes  have  sought  and 
which  is  not  only  natural,  but  inevitable  on  the  Dar- 
winian hypothesis,  and  whose  discovery  would  make 
the  fame  of  any  observer."  —  Seelye.     Humanity  not 
the  goal  of  Evolution.    Humanity  the  goal  of  human 
Evolution,  perhaps.     Goal   of   Evolution   adaptation, 
mostly  by  slow  divergence. 

III.  Not  series  of  sudden  and  radical  changes.     Not 
that  a  flying  fish  in  the  air  would  see  his  "  scales  dis- 
parting into  feathers."     Not  that  a  horse  should  give 


WHAT    EVOLUTION    IS    NOT.  / 

birth  to  a  cow  or  a  cow  to  a  horse.  Seasons  change, 
but  midsummer  never  changes  to  midwinter,  or  the  re- 
verse, except  by  gradual  stages.  Life  is  conservative 
and  changes  slowly,  but  must  constantly  change. 

IV.  Not  "an   innate  tendency  toward  progression." 
Degeneration  in  Evolution  as  well  as  progress.     Di- 
vergence   and    adaptation     not    necessarily    progress. 
Gradation  not  necessarily  progression. 

V.  Not  spontaneous  generation.     Ancient  belief  in 
spontaneous   generation.     Modern   belief  in  it.     Tyn- 
dall's  experiments.     No  evidence  that  generation  ever 
occurs  without  parentage.     Theoretical  argument  for 
it.     How  else   could    life   begin  ?     We  do    not  know 
how,  or  where,  or   when  life   began.     Theoretical  evi- 
dence against  spontaneous    generation.     If  occurring 
once  would  occur  again   under   like  conditions.     All 
life  seems  bound  in  unity,  as  if  arising  from  one  com- 
mon   stock.     Spontaneous    generation    implies    many 
stocks.     If  spontaneous    generation    exists  we  would 
have  no  means  of  recognizing  it.     Spontaneous  forma- 
tion of  protoplasm — an  organism  fresh  from  mint  of 
creation  would  be  too  small  —  too  simple   for   recog- 
nition   by    any    human    instrumentality.     Size    of   a 
molecule  of  protoplasm. 

VI.  Not  identical  with   the  Hindoo  theories  of  re- 
incarnation.     Science    not    advanced    by    speculative 
philosophy  or  by  philosophic  meditation. 

VII.  Not  a  creed  or  body  of  doctrine  to  be  believed 
without  being  understood. 

VJ1I.  Not  a  new  religion,  "  the  religion  of  the  future." 

IX.  Not  to  be  controverted  by  authority  in  the  name 

of  philosophy,  theology,  or  religion.    "  Roma  locuta  est : 


8  WHAT    EVOLUTION    IS    NOT. 

causa  finita  e*t"  no-t  a  dictum  recognized  by  science. 
Her  causes  never  finished.  Science  cannot  admit  that 
any  power  on  earth  possesses  the  answer  to  her  ques- 
tions. Human  knowledge  her  only  court  of  appeal. 
Science  is  "  knowledge  set  in  order." 


LECTURE  IV. 

V A R  I  E  T  Y     IN     LlFE. 

Variety  everywhere.  "Nature  likes  to  know  her 
creatures."  Commonness  the  cloak  of  variety.  The 
green  cloak  which  covers  the  brown  earth  the  shield 
under  which  millions  of  organisms,  brown  and  green, 
carry  on  their  life  work. 

Meaning  of  Species.  —  A  single  kind  of  living  object. 
"  Species  are  the  twigs  of  a  tree,  disconnected  from  its 
parent  stem.  We  name  and  arrange  them  arbitrarily 
in  default  of  ability  to  reconstruct  the  whole  tree  in 
accordance  with  nature's  ramifications."-—  Coues. 

Linnaeus  ;  Systema  Naturae,  1758  :  Four  thousand 
species  of  animals. 

Zoological  record — 10,000  each  year  now  added. 
Each  volume  thicker  than  the  one  before  it.  Number 
of  species  of  animals  now  known,  high  in  the  millions  ; 
no  one  knows  how  far.  Still  more  of  plants.  Ex- 
tinct hosts.  All  these  species  phases  of  change.  Vari- 
ety within  species  ;  no  two  individuals  alike.  No  one 
ever  matched  two  clover  leaves.  Immense  range  of 
individual  variation.  The  variations  due  to  :  (1)  In- 
nate tendencies,  the  "unseen  powers"  within.  (2) 
To  stimulus  of  surroundings,  the  "  unseen  powers"  of 
environment.  (3)  To  double  parentage,  the  "unseen 
powers"  of  heredity.  (4)  Unlikeness  of  germ  cells  of 
same  individual. 


10  VARIETY    IN    LIFE. 

Advantages  of  variety  in  nature  enables  existence 
of  more  life  ;  saves  waste  ;  saves  destructive  competi- 
tion. "Purposes  of  nature."  Analogy  to  human  de- 
vices. Teleology. 

Species  made  up  of  individuals.  They  change  with 
space  and  with  time.  With  space,  because  with  space 
comes  barriers  ;  with  time,  because  it  brings  events 
producing  divergence.  Neither  time  nor  space  flow 
on  evenly  in  the  world  of  life.  Variations  grow 
greater  with  lapse  of  time  and  space,  for  these  bring 
other  events  and  form  other  barriers. 

Is  there  a  law  of  variation  ?  If  variation  exists  it 
has  its  meaning.  It  is  produced  by  fixed  laws  ;  it  is 
governed  by  fixed  laws.  What  is  the  origin  of  spe- 
cies ? 

While  species  change,  their  types  persist.  Essential 
unity  in  variety. 


LECTURE    V. 

U  N  I  T  Y     I  N     L  I  F  E. 

Essential  unity  amid  variety.  Persistence  of  plan. 
Types  of  structure  very  few.  Embryology  shows  like 
plan  in  organisms  seemingly  unlike.  All  organisms 
are  cells  or  clusters  of  cells  filled  with  protoplasm  ; 
each  cell  provided  with  a  nucleus  and  its  chromatin. 
and  with  the  associated  structures  hy  which  the  work 
of  a  cell  is  performed. 

Homology. —  Its  existence;  its  significance;  its  dis- 
tinction from  analogy.  Homology  in  structure;  ho- 
mology  in  development  ;  man  and  dog ;  man  and 
alligator.  Homology  through  descent.  Homology 
through  common  descent.  Common  descent  the  sole 
known  source  of  homology.  Homology  means  blood 
relationship.  Homology  is  the  stamp  of  heredity. 
The  law  of  unity  has  its  basis  in  the  influence  of 
heredity. 

All  laws  of  life  apply  to  man,  to  the  lowTer  animals, 
and  to  "our  brother  organisms,  the  plants,"  each  in 
its  degree. 

Principal  factors  in  Organic  Evolution: 

/.  Heredity. — "  Like  begets  like  "  ;  creatures  resem- 
ble their  ancestors. 

'  //.  Irritability. —  All  living  beings  respond  to  ex- 
ternal stimulus.  They  are  moved  by  or  they  react 
from  every  phase  of  their  surroundings. 


12  UNITY    IX    LIFE. 

///.  Individuality. —  No  two  organisms  are  exactly 
alike. 

IV.  Self -activity. —  Development    of   structures   de- 
pends on  the  exercise  of  functions. 

V.  Natural   Selection. —  The  survival   of  the  fittest 
in  the  struggle  for  existence. 

VI.  Mutual  Help. —  The  race  not  to  the  swift  nor 
the  battle  to  the  strong,  but  to  those  who  can  keep  to- 
gether. 

VII.  Isolation. — Effects  of  individual  separation  from 
bodies  of  organisms. 

The  interaction  on  protoplasmic  structures  of  these 
factors  or  groups  of  forces  and  of  others  more  or  less 
known  the  cause  of  Organic  Evolution. 


LECTURE    VI. 

HEREDITY  :     THE    GREAT    CONSERVATIVE    FORCE    IN 
EVOLUTION. 

•  Like  begets  like/'  "Blood  will  tell."  Creatures 
resemble  their  ancestors.  Eacb  creature  in  a  sense  a 
mosaic  of  its  ancestry,  rather  than  an  "  ego."  "  The 
specialization  of  the  single  cell,  which  is  capable  of 
repeating  the  whole  with  the  precision  of  a  work  of 
art/- 
With birth  "  the  gate  of  gifts  is  closed."  These  gifts 
the  hereditary  stock  which  one  generation  receives 
from  that  which  precedes  it. 

"Science  finds  no  ego,  self,  or  will  that  can  main- 
tain itself  against  the  past.  Heredity  rules  our  lives 
like  the  supreme  primeval  necessity  that  stood  above 
the  Olympian  gods.  i  It  is  the  last  of  the  fates  and 
the  most  terrible.  It  is  the  only  one  of  the  gods  whose 
name  we  know.'  .  .  .  We  are  possessed,  not  In- 
dentions, but  by  the  dead.  These  are  the  real  ghosts 
which  throng  our  lives,  haunt  our  footsteps,  remorse- 
less as  the  furies.  We  are  followed  by  the  shades  of 
our  ancestors,  who  visit  us,  not  with  midnight  squeak 
or  gibber,  but  in  the  broad  noonday,  speaking  with 
our  speech  and  doing  with  our  deed.  On  the  stage  of 
life  the  actors  recite  speeches  and  follow  stage  direc- 
tions written  for  them  long  before  they  were  born.v- 
Edward  A.  Ross. 


1  4  HEREDITY. 

"  Vom  Vater  hab'  ich  die  Statur, 

Des  Lebens  ernstes  Fiihren  ; 
Vom  Mutterchen  die  Frohnatur 

Die  Lust  zu  fabuliren." — Goethe. 

"  Stature  from  father  and  the  mood, 

Stern  views  of  life  compelling  ; 
From  mother  I  take  the  joyous  heart, 

The  love  of  story-telling. 
Grandfather's  passion  was  the  fair. 

What  if  I  still  reveal  it  ? 
Grandmother's  pomp  and  gold  and  show, 

And  in  my  bones  I  feel  it. 

—  Bayard  Taylor's  Translation. 

Laws  of  heredity  seem  to  be  the  same  for  all  living 
creatures.  This  is  a  strong  evidence  of  their  common 
origin.  Value  of  pedigree. 

Galton's  suggestion  as  to  the  possibility  of  charts 
of  heredity,  like  charts  of  harbors.  Difficulty  in  their 
compilation. 

Persistence  of  hereditary  qualities.  Atavism.  The 
colt  from  Milpitas  with  three  hoofs  on  two  of  its  feet. 


LECTURE    VII. 
THEORIES  OF  HEREDITY. 

The  cell  regarded  as  the  unit  in  phenomena  of  life. 
Reasons  why  the  cell  may  not  be  the  life  unit.  Cells 
forced  to  form  organs.  Organs  built  up  of  cells. 

The  sexual  cell  specialized  to  carry  all  the  qualities 
of  the  parent,  both  latent  and  developed. 

I.  Theories  of  Encasement  and  Evolution. 

II.  Theory  of  Epogenesis  ;  building  up  of  structure  ; 
one  cell  upon  another. 

III.  Darwin's  theory  of  Pangenesis.    Each  cell  send- 
ing out  from  itself  to  every  part  of  the  body  gem  mules 
or   minute   buds  ;    u  these   inconceivably   minute   and 
numerous  as  the  stars  in  heaven."    Each  of  these  cap- 
able of  reproducing  the  qualities  of  the  cell  it  came 
from. 

IV.  Brooks.     Differentiation   of   sex    in    gemmules. 
The  male  gemmules  active  and   varying,  the  female 
sessile  and  conservative. 

V.  Weismann's  theory  of  continuity  of  germ  plasm 
from   generation  to   generation.     Germ  cells   and   so- 
matic cells.     Nucleus   the  directive  part  of  the  cell  ; 
virtually  unchanged  from  generation  to  generation  ex- 
cept  by   forces   within    it.     External    changes   of  the 
xoma  do  not  reach  it. 


LECTURE    VIII. 
THE  CELL  AND  HEEEDITY. 

First  animals  (protozoa)  one-celled.  Consisting  of 
a  sac  rilled  with  protoplasm,  the  physical  basis  of  life. 
Qualities  of  protoplasm.  Within  the  protoplasm,  the 
nucleus,  composed  chiefly  of  loops  and  bands  of  chro- 
matin.  The  chromatin  presides  over  the  development 
and  differentiation  of  the  protoplasm,  action  itself  be- 
ing a  function  of  the  protoplasm.  Action  of  the  astern 
or  attraction  spheres.  Limitation  in  size  of  protozoa. 
Cell  division  of  protozoa.  Rapidity  of  multiplication. 
One  would  fill  the  bulk  of  the  sun  in  a  month  if  all 
the  conditions  were  favorable. 

Law  of  Mutual  Aid. —  (1)  Its  beginning  shown  in 
aggregation  of  cells.  So-called  immortality  (Unsterb- 
lichkeit)  of  protozoa  not  immortality  of  the  fabled 
demigod  Ares,  who  when  hurt  "  bellowed  like  ten 
thousand  bulls,"  but  could  not  die.  They  die  only 
when  the  activity  of  their  protoplasm  is  checked  by 
outside  influences.  Natural  death  not  known  to  them. 
Must  be  fully  alive  or  fully  dead.  No  intermediate 
stage.  Aggregation  of  cells  leads  to  increased  size, 
specialization  of  parts,  sensitiveness,  intelligence,  and 
natural  death.  Natural  death  a  necessary  resultant 
of  differentiation  of  structure.  Simplicity,  ignorance, 
and  immortality  in  the  process  of  Evolution  exchanged 
for  sensibility,  pain,  and  death.  How  "Brahma  fell 


THE    CELL    AND    HEREDITY.  17 

from  unity  and  serenity  to  multiplicity  and  pain." 
Was  this  "a  gigantic  mistake,  a  stupendous  blunder 
of  the  blind  unconscious  force  from  which  there  is  no 
escape  until  the  world  is  hurled  back  into  nothingness 
by  the  supreme  efforts  of  the  human  will "  ? 

(2)  Its  beginning  shown  in  conjugation  of  cells. 
Exchange  of  experiences.  Development  of  conjuga- 
tion into  the  complex  sex  phenomena  of  the  metazoa. 

Sexual  cells  in  metazoa  (many-celled  or  compound 
animals).  These  primarily  alike  and  like  protozoa. 
Become  specialized  by  sex  differentiation  into:  (a) 
spermatozoa,  mobile  cells  composed  chiefly  of  nucleus  ; 
and  (6)  ova,  sessile,  immovable  cells  provided  with 
food  yolk  for  the  nourishment  of  the  new  cell  struc- 
tures. How  a  cell  divides.  Lengthwise  splitting  of 
chromatin  under  influence  of  asters  or  attraction  spheres. 
Equal  division  ;  never  quite  equal. 

Boveri's  experiments.  Transfer  of  nucleus  from  egg 
to  egg  in  echini.  As  the  nucleus  is,  so  is  the  result- 
ant animal,  whether  developed  in  its  own  egg,  or  its 
own  protoplasm,  or  in  that  of  another. 

Analogous  transfer  of  nucleus  in  protozoa.  The  chro- 
matin determines  what  the  resultant  animal  shall  be. 

Many-celled  animals  really  compound.  Edmund 
B.  Wilson's  experiment  with  the  lancelet.  Division 
of  egg;  when  of  two  cells  into  two,  each  forms  one 
animal,  half  normal  size ;  division  when  segmented 
into  four  forms  four  animals,  each  one-fourth  size  ; 
division  into  eight,  each  cell  seems  a  ciliated  in- 
fusorian,  but  dies  before  further  division.  Could  be 
true  of  all  animals  at  all  times  were  it  not  that  mutual 
aid  induces  mutual  dependence. 


18  THE    CELL    AND    HEREDITY. 

Amphimixis,  mingling  of  chromatin  units  ;  idants, 
ids,  biophores,  gemmules.  This  mixing  supposed  to 
correspond  to  the  mixing  of  elements  of  character  or 
of  structure  in  the  new  individual.  Dimorphism  of 
living  beings.  Primary  purpose  of  amphimixis  to  in- 
crease variation.  Lack  of  variation  means  destructive 
competition  and  wasted  opportunities. 

Parthenogenesis ;  its  occurrence  when  an  immediate 
brood  is  needed,  and  variation  undesirable.  A  char- 
acter of  degeneration.  Its  analogy  to  budding. 

The  polar  bodies.  Their  origin  and  significance. 
Female  mother  cells  form  four  daughter  cells.  These 
unequal  ;  one  with  food  yolk  and  half  normal  amount 
of  chromatin.  The  three  others  (polar  bodies),  with- 
out food  yolk,  are  cast  off  and  do  not  develop.  Male 
mother  cells  divide  into  four  daughter  cells,  all  alike. 
Studies  of  Ascaris. 


LECTURE    IX. 
AMPHIMIXIS. 

• 

Amphimixis  consists  in  fusion  of  chromatin  in  two 
cells  prepared  for  the  process.  Sex  cells  fundament- 
ally alike.  This  is  shown  in  : 

1.  Their  origin. 

2.  Conjugation  of  equal  protozoa. 

3.  Homology  of  spore-producing  organs. 

4.  Low  feeding  produces  males  ;    high   feeding,  fe- 
males. 

5.  Maupas's    experiment  :     Heat   produces   males ; 
cold,  females. 

6.  Parthenogenesis  of  male  cells  ;  produces  weak  in- 
dividuals from  lack  of  food  substances. 

7.  Formation  of  sex  cells  in  male  and  in  female  by 
division  of  mother  cell  into  four. 

Two  phenomena  (first  noticed  by  Harvey,  1651)  : 

1.  Heredity  ;  mixture  of  parental  character  in  off- 
spring, through  mixture  of  idants  ( ah nen plasma)  car- 
ried in  the  chromatin. 

2.  -Sex  differentiation,  in  growth  of  individual  after 
the  cell-growth  has  begun  and  idants  are  mixed. 

Units  of  heredity.     Their  combinations  infinite. 

Galton's  estimate  :  Twenty-five  per  cent,  from  each 
parent ;  six  and  two-thirds  per  cent,  from  each  grand- 
parent ;  remainder  unidentified  variation  and  at- 
avism. 


20  AMPHIMIXIS. 

The  embryo  of  both  sexes  fundamentally  alike,  but 
the  germ  cell  develops  in  one  of  two  ways,  according 
to  unknown  and  doubtless  varying  stimuli.  Without 
a  stimulus  each  nucleus  is  sexless.  (  Wdtase.) 

Fertilization  not  a  rejuvenation,  but  a  mixing  of 
characters.  Each  new  individual  would  be  a  "branch 
or  elongation  of  the  parent "  (Erasmus  Darwin),  except 
for  amphimixis. 

Inherited  dependence  prevents  ordinary  cells  from 
acting  as  germ  cells  in  higher  animals.  Growth  by 
budding  or  fusion  in  lower  animals  or  plants. 

Inherited  dependence  prevents  parthenogenesis  in 
any  of  the  higher  forms  of  life. 

"  Nature  has  no  better  way  of  encouraging  varia- 
tion than  by  preventing  individual  germ  cells  from 
developing  alone." 

"  Whatever  is  desirable  in  Nature  becomes  necessary 
as  soon  as  it  is  possible."--  Weismann. 

The  infinitely  little  shown  in  units  of  heredity.  The 
question  of  size  a  relative  one ;  on  either  side  extends 
infinity. 


LECTURE   X. 

THE  MEANING  OF  SEX. 

"Whatever  is  desirable  becomes  necessary  as  soon 
as  it  is  possible."  Law  of  natural  selection.  Division 
of  labor  in  organs  and  organisms.  Division  of  labor 
between  sexes.  Neither  sex  superior  nor  prior  to 
other.  Mutual  help  involves  mutual  dependence. 
Specialization  involves  helplessness.  Progress  implies 
certain  degradation  of  non-specialized  structures. 
Law  of  "Compensation." 

Egg-bearing  creatures  less  active  than  those  not  so 
burdened.  Activity  co-ordinated  with  strength.  Co- 
ordination of  sensorium,  brain,  and  motion. 

Progress  of  Evolution  makes  embryo  more  and  more 
important ;  the  waste  less  and  less. 

Retention  of  eggs  saves  them  from  early  destruction 
and  lessens  their  number  ;  saving  of  eggs  through 
fertilization  before  extrusion  ;  by  viviparity  ;  by  nour- 
ishment by  milk  ;  by  care  for  young.  Destruction  of 
Saurians,  who  did  not  care  for  the  young.  Viviparity, 
and  lactation,  and  care  make  a  birth  important. 
u  But  one  young  one  at  a  birth  ;  but  that  was  a  lion." 

Saving  with  plants  through  flowers  and  insect  help. 
Petals  are  leaves  modified  to  call  insects.  One  of 
Nature's  advertisements.  Winds  and  pines.  Waste 
of  pollen. 

Parents  differentiated  as  protectors  of  young.     Give 


22  THE    MEANING    OF    SEX. 

to  the  young  more  and  more  of  environment,  as  well 
as  of  heredity.  Continued  life  of  adult  animals,  justi- 
fied in  Evolution,  by  care  for  the  young. 

Sex  differentiation  produces  change  in  life-habits, 
and  this  reacts  on  the  organism.  Strength,  push,  and 
initiative  more  and  more  thrown  on  the  male.  Devo- 
tion and  sympathy  ;  radicalism  and  conservatism. 

Mental  and  physical  qualities  of  men  and  women 
as  affected  by  division  of  labor.  Women  rarely  excel 
as  explorers,  investigators,  judges,  or  warriors.  Excel 
in  delicacy,  devotion,  sympathy,  and  self-sacrifice. 
Excel  as  defenders  of  young.  Female  animal  always 
most  dangerous  when  at  bay.  The  defender  of  the 
young  must  be  a  partisan  ;  not  a  judge. 

Growing  demand  for  longer  environment  on  part  of 
parents.  Demand  for  mothers,  not  merely  nurses  or 
chambermaids,  but  capable  of  becoming  life-long  parts 
of  the  environment  of  the  strongest  and  noblest  men. 
u  Das  Ewigweibliche." 

That  division  of  labor  best  which  will  justify  itself 
by  being.  Nature  corrects  inequalities  by  submerging 
those  not  in  harmony  with  her  purposes.  Agitation 
loosens  the  bond  of  the  past,  and  leaves  freer  in- 
fluences of  the  future.  The  movement  of  Evolution 
renders  justice  to  all  alike.  The  best  to  be  is  what 
can  be. 

"  For  woman  is  not  undeveloped  man,  but  diverse." 
-  Tennyson'' 8  " 


LECTURE   XI. 

THE   CELL   THEORY. 

Prof.  Oliver  P.  Jenkins. 

The  cell  theory  is  a  conception  of  the  nature  of  the 
organization  of  plants  and  animals,  which  has  been 
the  result  of  the  gradual  growth  of  ideas  in  regard  to 
the  structure  of  organisms  since  the  application  of  the 
microscope  to  this  study. 

The  theory  has  been  from  time  to  time  modified  in 
the  light  of  a  clearer  understanding  of  the  cell  —  its 
relationships,  its  minute  structure,  and  its  properties. 

Investigations  and  discussions  now  in  progress  in 
regard  to  the  minute  structure  of  the  cell  and  the  in- 
terpretation of  its  parts  promise  further  greatly  to 
modify  our  conceptions  of  the  organization  of  living 
forms. 

Still  the  cell  theory  in  its  main  outline  represents  the 
present  conception  of  the  structure  of  organisms.  It 
forms  a  most  valuable  point  of  view  from  which  to 
consider  the  whole  world  of  living  forms,  both  from 
the  standpoint  of  structure  (morphology)  and  from 
that  of  activity  and  function  (physiology). 

Statement  of  the  Cell  Theory.—  That  the  cell  is  the 
unit  of  organization  in  both  the  plant  and  animal 
world. 

All  organisms  consist  of  cells  and  cell-products. 


24  THE    CELL    THEORY. 

The  most  simple  organisms  consist  of  a  single  cell. 

The  most  complex  of  countless  numbers  of  cells  so 
united  that  they  are  thrown  into  groups  (the  tissues), 
which  are  arranged  into  such  structural  relationships 
that  they  form  special  mechanisms  (the  organs).  The 
whole  has  that  mutual  relationship  of  parts,  both  in 
structure  and  function,  that  constitutes  a  complex  yet 
complete  organism. 

An  organism  consisting  of  a  single  nucleated  cell 
possesses  in  a  certain  degree  all  the  physiological 
properties  —  the  power  of  accomplishing  the  physio- 
logical processes,  e.  #.,  assimilation,  disassimilation, 
irritability,  contractility,  reproduction,  etc.,  that  any 
organism  possesses. 

An  organism  consisting  of  great  numbers  of  cells 
differs  from  the  more  simple  one-celled  form  in  that 
in  it  development  has  proceeded  to  the  point  where 
groups  of  cells  have  become  more  adept  in  performing 
a  certain  physiological  process  (e.  g.,  gland  cells  — 
secretion;  muscle  cells  —  contraction),  while  other 
groups  accomplish  better  other  processes  ;  thereby 
there  having  been  accomplished  in  the  organism  what 
has  been  termed  the  "physiological  division  of  labor." 

Every  cell  arises  from  a  pre-existing  cell  by  division 
of  the  first.  The  countless  multitudes  of  differently 
formed  cells  of  the  most  complex  organism  can  in 
each  case  be  traced  to  a  single  cell,  the  ovum,  all 
having  arisen  from  this  one  by  growth  and  repeated 
divisions. 

Hence  all  the  properties  of  the  cells  produced  by 
the  last  division  came  by  descent  from  the  first.  All 
the  forms  of  organs  and  their  arrangement  into  the 


THE    CELL    THEORY.  2 

whole  organism  is  the  result  of  the  methods  of  growth, 
reproduction,  and  grouping  of  the  cells. 

These  views  of  the  cell  place  its  study  at  the  foun- 
dation of  structural  (morphological),  of  physiological, 
and  of  what  may  be  termed  the  philosophical  studies 
of  organisms. 

While  for  the  conceptions  above  set  forth  the  cell 
may  be  taken  as  the  unit,  it  must  be  kept  in  mind 
that  the  cell  itself  is  of  very  complex  organization.  It 
has  parts,  each  with  its  special  properties  and  func- 
tions. The  cell  is  the  unit  in  the  sense  that  its  parts 
live  and  act  only  in  the  relations  in  which  we  find 
them  organized  in  the  cell.  While  a  single  cell  may 
live  alone,  its  parts  cannot  do  so.  In  the  growth 
and  development  of  the  organism  the  advancement  is 
made  by  the  repetition  of  the  whole  cell  as  the  unit. 


i   W   W.  LOCAL,  174 

569    -   7TH    STRE 

OAKLAND.  C 


LECTURE    XII. 

THE  PHYSICAL  BASIS  OF  HEREDITY. 
Prof.  Frank  M.  McFarland. 

I,  Heredity. —  The  law  of  persistence  in  a  series  of 
organisms.  Like  produces  like. 

77.   The  Cell.  —  The  physical  basis  of  life. 

1.  Its  structure.     (^4)    Protoplasm.  — (a)   Spongio- 
plasm  ;    (b)  Hyaloplasm.     (B)  Nucleus.  —  (a)    Chro- 
matin  ;  (c)  Achromatin  ;  (d)  Nuclear  membrane. 

2.  Protoplasm  a  morphological,  not  a  chemical  con- 
ception.    Its  complexity. 

8.  Its  fundamental  phenomena.  Assimilation  and 
metabolism.  Growth,  irritability,  contractility,  re- 
production. 

4.  Cell  multiplication.  "Oninis  cellula  emcellula" 
changed  to  "  Omnis  nucleus  e  nucleo."  The  spindle, 
attraction  spheres,  and  centrosomes  exist  for  the 
purpose  of  dividing  the  chromatin,  the  probable 
vehicle  of  heredity  between  the  two  daughter  cells. 

///.  Multiplication  Among  Protozoa.  —  Macronuclei 
and  micronuclei.  Fission  and  conjugation.  Amphi- 
mixis. 

IV.  Multiplication  Among  Metazoa. —  Histological 
differentiation  into  body  or  somatic,  and  reproductive 
cells.  The  origin  of  sex. 

1.  The  reproductive  cells.      Ova  and   spermatozoa. 


THK    PHYSICAL    BASIS    OF    HEREDITY.  27 

Their  difference  only  an  apparent  one.     Fundament- 
ally alike,  as  seen  in  their  development. 

V.  Fertilization  and  Amphimixis. 

VI.  Recent  Theories  of  Heredity. —  Their  use  as  work- 
ing hypotheses.     *•  Even  error,  if  it  originate  in  correct 
deductions,  must  become  a  step  towards  truth."     Dar- 
win, Spencer,  (lalton.   Brooks,  Niigeli.   DeVries,  Weis- 
mann,  Wiesner. 

VII.  View*  of  Weixmann. —  Morphoplasm   and  idio- 
plasm.    The    structure    of    the    germ    plasm.      The 
chromosomes  or   idants   the  bearers   of  heredity  ten- 
dencies.    These  made  up  of  : 

1.  Biophore*.  or  Lebenstrager,  the  ultimate  vital 
units.  Various,  but  perfectly  definite  numbers  of 
them  form 

'2.  Determinant*,  vital  units  of  the  second  order. 
Each  of  these  is  the  Anlage  of  a  particular  cell  or 
group  of  cells.  rJ  hese  constitute  &nd  occupy  definite 
positions  in  the  architecture  of  the  vital  units  of  the 
third  order,  the 

8.  Id*.  In  the  process  of  development  of  the  in- 
dividual, its  ontogeney,  these  ids  break  up  with  a 
qualitative  distribution  of  each  group  of  determinants 
to  its  appropriate  place  in  the  adult  organism.  These 
ids  may  correspond  to  the  visible  "  microsomes." 

4.  The  origin  of  variations. 


LECTURE   XIII. 
THE  INHERITANCE  OF  ACQUIRED  CHARACTERS. 

An  acquired  character  one  gained  after  birth  as  a 
result  of  action  or  non-action,  or  of  reaction  from 
environment.  Distinguished  from  an  innate  char- 
acter carried  over  in  process  of  heredity.  An  acquired 
character  not  a  new  thing,  hut  one  resulting  from 
change  in  relative  development  of  organs  or  qualities. 
Results  of  winning  or  losing  in  life,  as  the  "gate  of 
gifts  closed  "  at  birth.  Is  it  closed  rather  with  amphi- 
mixis ?  with  process  of  conception  ? 

Affirmative  View. — •  Neo-Lamarckism. 

The  parable  of  the  owl  and  the  egg.  McFarland's 
application  of  it  to  the  present  problem.  Which  is 
first,  the  soma  or  the  ovum  ?  Can  the  life  experiences 
of  the  soma  affect  the  ovum  ?  Are  latent  and  de- 
veloped characters  alike  inherited  ? 

"  All  that  has  been  acquired,  begun,  or  changed  in 
the  structure  of  individuals  in  their  life  time  is  pre- 
served in  reproduction  and  transmitted  to  the  new 
individuals  which  spring  from  those  who  have  in- 
herited the  change." — Lamarck  :  Fourth  Law  of  Evolu- 
tion. 

"  Change  of  function  produces  change  of  structure  ; 
it  is  a  tenable  hypothesis  that  changes  of  structure  so 
produced  are  inherited." — Herbert  Spencer.  (1)  The 
Darwinian  principle  :  Natural  selection.  (2)  The  sup- 


THE    INHERITANCE    OF    ACQUIRED    CHARACTERS.       29 

posed  Lamarckian  principle  :  Inheritance  of  acquired 
character. 

The  Madeira  beetles,  without  wings.  (1)  Their 
wings  lost  through  inherited  disuse.  —  Lamarckian 
principle.  (2)  Their  wings  lost  through  natural 
selection. — Darwinian  principle. 

The  webbing  of  ducks'  feet.  (1)  Grows  through  in- 
herited results  of  effort.  (2)  Grows  through  natural 
selection. 

Fishes  in  caves  become  blind.  (1)  Through  in- 
herited disuse.  (2)  Through  panmixia  or  cessation 
of  selection. 

The  monkey's  dread  of  snakes. 

The  mocking-bird's  dread  of  owls. 

Pointer  dogs.     Snapping  turtles.     Pawing  for  water. 

Change  of  feet  of  animals  through  strains  on  ankle- 
bones. 

Has  functional  activity  a  directive  power,  as  giving 
a  line  of  least  resistance  to  activity  of  next  generation  ? 

Inheritance  of  education  ;  noble  effort. 

Experience  ;  effects  of  environment.  Is  my  hered- 
ity my  grandfather's  environment  ?  Is  there  reality 
in  Ibsen's  "Ghosts"?  (1)  Inheritance  of  mutila- 
tions ;  experiments  of  Brown-Sequard.  (2)  Previous 
fertilizations ;  horse  and  jack.  (3)  Pre-natal  im- 
pressions ;  many  cases  on  record  ;  few  of  them  veri- 
fied ;  none  conclusive.  Watching  the  reapers  day  by 
day,  that  the  child  may  love  the  harvests.  Striped 
calves  ;  Weismann's  sheep. 

Diversion  of  heredity  by  forces  not  understood.  In- 
heritance of  acquired  characters  less  than  usually 
supposed.  If  existing  at  all,  probably  chiefly  in- 


30        THE    INHERITANCE    OF   ACQUIRED    CHARACTERS. 

heritance  of  reaction  tendencies  produced  by  func- 
tional activity.  Determining  line  of  least  resistance. 
May  be  wholly  imaginary,  but  almost  universally 
taken  for  granted.  Growth  of  Neo-Lamarckism. 

Civilization  the  inheritance  of  the  successes  of  the 
past. 

"Considering  the  width  and  depth  of  the  effects 
which  the  acceptance  of  one  or  the  other  of  these 
hypotheses  must  have  on  our  views  of  life,  the  ques- 
tion, Which  of  them  is  true?  demands  beyond  all  other 
questions  whatever,  the  attention  of  scientific  men."— 
Herbert  Spencer. 


LECTURE   XIV. 

THE  INHERITANCE  OF  ACQUIRED   CHARACTERS. —  CON- 
TINUED. 

Negative  View. —  Neo-Darwinism. 

Weismann's  essays  on  heredity.  Contradicted  two 
ideas  long  unquestioned  :  (a)  Inheritance  of  char- 
acters acquired  ;  (6)  Fertilization  a  process  of 
rejuvenation.  His  work  a  great  stimulus  to  investi- 
gation. 

Weismann's  distinction  between  germ  cells  and  soma 
or  body  cells.  Is  this  "  a  biological  myth  "  ?  Germ 
cells  from  same  body  never  alike,  because  of  in- 
equality of  division  of  nucleus.  Germ  cells  of  new 
body  like  those  of  old,  except  that  qualities  of  two  are 
fused  through  amphimixis. 

Germ  cells  immortal  as  the  protozoa  are.  Each 
new  soma  a  reincarnation  of  the  germ  cell.  The 
soma  and  its  experiences  cannot  affect  a  germ  cell, 
except  to  lower  its  vitality.  "  Mens  sano"  must  be 
"in  corpore  sano." 

Ibsen's  ghosts.  Effect  of  waist-compression,  ciga- 
rette, alcoholism.  Are  these  inherited,  producing  a 
more  and  more  vicious  and  less  and  less  vitalized 
race  ?  Are  these  not  inherited,  but  showing  their 
effects  in  lowered  vitality  ?  Are  these  not  inherited, 
but  directly  useful  in  weeding  out  the  weak  and 


32       THE    INHERITANCE    OF    ACQUIRED    CHARACTERS. 

foolish,  leaving  room  for  the  "  deep-lunged  children  of 
the  fatherland  "  ? 

Strength  comes  from  surmounting  difficulties,  weak- 
ness from  being  helped  over  them,  or  from  being 
unable  to  conquer  them.  Is  such  strength  or  weak- 
ness inherited  ?  If  not,  much  that  has  been  written 
on  social  pathology  and  degeneration  must  be  re- 
written. A  new  history  of  civilization  must  be  writ- 
ten, a  new  philosophy  of  ethics,  and  a  new  definition 
of  instinct. 

Is  instinct  inherited  habit,  or  is  it  selected  habit  ? 

Is  civilization  the  inheritance  of  past  successes,  or 
is  "civilization  a  storing-up  of  achievements  :  the  sum 
of  those  contrivances  which  enable  human  beings  to 
advance  independent  of  heredity"  ? 

Is  Neo-Darwinism  the  "  Gospel  of  Despair  "  ?  The 
truth  is  never  a  cause  of  despair.  What  we  have 
gained  in  Evolution  is  gained,  even  though  the  pro- 
cess be  slower  than  we  had  supposed.  This  gain  is 
the  guarantee  of  future  progress. 

"It  is  plain  that  the  swift  spread  of  science  has 
brought  men  into  a  new  universe.  Few  there  are  that 
can  adorn  the  new  home  except  with  ornaments  saved 
from  the  old.  For  most  men  the  universe  science 
tells  of  rises  about  them  unsightly  and  barn-like,  with 
bare  walls  and  naked  rafters.  Until  art  can  beautify 
the  walls,  and  poetry  gild  the  rafters,  men  will  have 
that  appalling  feeling  of  being  nowhere  at  home,  that 
awful  sinking  as  if  the  bottom  was  dropping  out  of  all 
things."— J£.  A.  Ross. 

Every  age  is  henceforth  to  be  an  age  of  trans- 
ition. In  transition  lies  the  growth  of  the  human 


THE    INHERITANCE    OF    ACQUIRED    CHARACTERS.        33 

mind,  which   we  may  speak  of  as  Nature's  present 
purpose. 

"The  fathers  have  eaten  sour  grapes,  and  the  chil- 
'dren's  teeth  are  set  on  edge.  As  I  live,  saith  the  Lord 
God,  ye  shall  not  have  any  more  to  use  this  proverb 
in  Israel.  Behold  all  souls  are  mine,  as  the  soul  of 
the  father  so  also  the  soul  of  the  son  is  mine.  The 
soul  that  sinneth,  it  shall  die." — Ezekiel,  xviii,  1-3. 


LECTURE   XV. 

SIGNIFICANCE  OF  MORPHOLOGY. 

Prof.  Frank  M.  McFarland. 

I.  Scope  of  morphology  as  a  branch  of  biology.     Its 
divisions  :  comparative  anatomy  and  comparative  em- 
bryology—  the   first    dealing   with   the    structure    of 
adult  forms  ;  the  second  with  the  structural  changes 
passed  through  by  them  in  their  development.     Ho- 
mology  and  analogy. 

II.  The  most  important  contribution  which  compar- 
ative embryology  has  made  to  the  science  of  biology 
is  the  establishment  of  the  principle  that  ontogeny, 
the  development  of  the   individual,  recapitulates  in 
a   measure  phylogeny,  the  development  of  the  race. 
Growth  of  this  idea  : 

1.  At  the  beginning  of  this  century  the  fact  gener- 
ally recognized  that  the  higher  animals  pass  through 
stages  in  their  development,  during  which  they  closely 
resemble  lower  forms  in  their  structure. 

2.  Karl  Ernst  von  Baer,  1828,  recognized  this   as 
a    general   law,   but  insisted    that   embryonic    stages 
could   only    be   correctly   compared    with   embryonic 
stages,  and  not  with  adult  ones.     u  The  more  different 
two  forms  are,  the  farther  back  in  their  development 
must  one  go  to  find   similar   stages."     Finally  con- 
cludes  that   in   earliest   stages   all   animals  may  be 


SIGNIFICANCE    OF    MORPHOLOGY.  35 

similar  —  that  "the  individual  development  is  a  pro- 
gressive change  from  a  more  general  form  to  a  more 
specific  one." 

3.  Influence    of    Darwin's   theory.      Fritz   Miiller, 
"  Fur    Darwin,"   Leipzig,    1864  ;    Recognizes   the  full 
significance  of  the   facts   hitherto   accumulated,  and 
points  out  their  relation  as  proving  the  theory,  of  de- 
scent.    The  developmental  processes  of  the  individual 
a  more  or  less  complete  recapitulation  of  the  develop- 
mental history  of  the  species,  complicated  and  short- 
ened by  secondary  variations  due  to  adaptation,  which 
have  been  acquired  in  the  struggle  for  existence. 

4.  HseckePs  "  Biogenetisches   Grundgesetz  "  ;    "Die 
Ontogenie  ist  eine  kurze  wiederholung  der  Phylogenie." 

III.  Complications  of  the  embryonic  history  to  be 
distinguished. 

1.  Palingenetic   characters  which    indicate    ances- 
tral   structure  ;    e.  </.,  the   gill   and    aortic    arches    of 
vertebrates. 

2.  Coenogenetic  characters,  which    have    arisen  as 
larval  or  embryonic  modifications  ;  e.  g.,  the  nauplius 
stage  of  Crustacea. 

The  principle  of  acceleration. 

IV.  Examples. —  The  trochophore  larva  of  mollusks 
and  annelids  ;  its  relations  to  the  ccelenterates.     The 
larval    history    of   balanoglossus    and    the    ascidians. 
Common  stages  in  the  vertebrate  group  as  indicating 
genetic  relationship. 


LECTURE   XVI. 
ONTOGENY  AND  PHYLOGENY. 

Correspondence  between  geological  and  embryologi- 
cal  succession.  Agassiz. 

"  Life  history  of  the  individual  an  epitome  of  the 
life  history  of  the  race.', —  Hwckel.  "  Unter  jedem 
Grab  liegt  eine  Weltgeschichte."  Why  is  this  so  ? 
Repetition  of  organs  by  law  of  heredity.  Modification 
by  natural  selection. 

Significance  of  gills  in  man ;  of  pineal  eye ;  of 
valves  in  blood  vessels  ;  of  rudimentary  organs  ;  of 
inguinal  hernia.  Segmentation  of  mammalian  egg. 
Simian  characters  seen  in  childhood.  Human  body 
full  of  degenerate  organs.  "  Pensioners  retained  for 
the  good  they  have  done."  Advancement  in  one 
organ  necessitates  degeneration  in  others.  Change 
in  human  body  perpetual.  Advancement  of  brain, 
hand,  pelvis,  great  toe,  etc. ;  degeneration  of  wisdom 
teeth,  ear  muscles,  lower  jaw,  little  toe,  etc.  Embry- 
ology reveals  history  of  race.  Embryo  of  animal  tells 
its  ancestry  ;  outside,  its  environment. 


LECTURE   XVII. 

CONTEMPORARY  EVOLUTION  OF  MAN. 

Prof.  Frank  M.  McFarland. 

Studies  of  Prof.  Osborne. 

/.  Anomalies. —  Variation  at  birth  from  ordinary  or 
typical  form.  Evolution  the  accumulation  of  anom- 
alies in  a  certain  definite  direction  by  heredity.  The 
anomalous  condition  of  one  generation  becomes  the 
typical  form  of  a  succeeding  one.  Variation  in  the 
human  body  universal. 

II.  Comparative  anatomy  and  embryology  the  key 
to  the  explanation  of  man's  structure.     The  only  in- 
terpretation of  our  bodily  structure  lies  in  the  theory 
of  descent  from  some  ancestral  form  such  as  may  have 
given  rise  to  the  living  anthropoidea. 

III.  Continual  readjustment  of  organs  to  suit  chang- 
ing circumstances.     Development.     Balance.     Degen- 
eration.    The  steps  in  degeneration.     Variability  as 
an  adult  structure  ;  as  a  foetal  structure.     Percentage 
of  variability  and  absence  increases  until  the  organ 
appears  only  occasionally  as  a  reversion,  and  then  dis- 
appears entirely.     Intermixing  of  races  tends  to  check 
the  rapid  evolution  of  man. 

IV.  Skeletal  variations. 

1.  The  backbone,  (a)  Increase  of  spinal  curva- 
tures. The  upright  an  acquired  one.  Ratio  of  front 


38  CONTEMPORARY    EVOLUTION    OF    MAN. 

to  hinder  faces  of  lumbar  vertebra  :  negroes,  106  : 100  ; 
whites,  100  :96.  (b)  Shortening  and  widening  of  cen- 
tra of  lumbar  vertebrae,  (c)  Correlated  changes  in 
lower  ribs,  lumbar  vertebrae,  and  pelvis.  Decrease  in 
the  number  of  ribs.  Decrease  in  the  number  of  lum- 
bar vertebrae.  Shifting  of  pelvis,  (d)  Variation  in 
coccyx. 

2.  The  skull,     (a)    Closure   of  cranial   and    facial 
sutures  in  higher  and  lower  races.     Open  cranial  and 
closed  facial  sutures  associated  with  increased  brain 
action,     (b)  Teeth.     Dental  formula  of  man  :  I.,  2-2  ; 
C.,  1-1  ;  P.  M.,2-2  ;  M.,  3-3.     Macrodont :  Andamanese, 
Melanasians,   Australians,    Tasmanians.     Microdont : 
Europeans,  Egyptians.     Mesodont  :  Chinese,  Indians, 
Malayans,  Negroes.     Decrease  in  number  and  size  of 
teeth.     The  third  molars  degenerating. 

3.  Appendicular  skeleton.     («)  Shoulder  girdle  and 
upper  arm.      (b)    Variation   of  scapular  index,     (c) 
Torsion  of  humerus.     (d)  Obliquity  of  elbow  articula- 
tion.    In  the  evolution  of  man    the  lower  end  of  the 
humerus  has  gradually  twisted  outward,  turning  the 
hand  to  the  front,  extending  its  range  and  adapting 
it  to  a  wider  usefulness,     (e)  Intercondylar  foramen. 
Thirty  per  cent,  skeleton  of  reindeer  period  ;  twenty- 
four  per  cent,  skeleton  of  Dolmen  period  ;   five  and 
one-half    per   cent,    skeleton   of   Parisian   cemeteries, 
fourth  to  tenth  centuries  ;  three  and  one-half  per  cent, 
skeleton  of  present  time.    (/)  Supracondylar  foramen. 
(g)    The  os  centrale  of  the  wrist,     (h)   Variation  in 
pelvis,     (i)  Third  trochanter  of  femur.    One  per  cent, 
in  European  ;  fifty  per  cent,  in  Sioux  ;   sixty-four  per 
cent,  in  Laplanders  ;  thirty-seven  per  cent,  in  Swedes. 
(j)  Degeneration  of  foot. 


CONTEMPORARY    EVOLUTION    OF    MAN.  39 

V.  Muscular  variations.  The  law  of  muscular  evo- 
lution. Specialization  by  the  separation  of  new 
independent  contractile  bands  from  the  large  funda- 
mental muscles.  Muscular  degeneration  leads  to  for- 
mation of  non-contractile  ligaments. 

Muscular  anomalies.  (1)  Palseogenetic  reversions  ; 
complete  restoration  of  lost  muscles.  (2)  Neogenetic 
reversions  ;  revivals  of  former  relations  in  existing 
muscles.  (3)  Progressive  variations  ;  pointing  to  fu- 
ture type  by  specialization,  or  degradation.  (4)  For- 
tuitous variations.  (A)  In  upper  limb,  (a)  Flexor 
longus  pollicis  and  flexor  digitorum.  (6)  Palmaris 
longus.  In  infants  and  lower  races.  Increase  of 
muscles  in  lower  arm  and  hand,  and  the  consequent 
specialization,  (c)  Retrogression  in  muscles  of  shoul- 
der and  upper  arm.  (B)  In  lower  limb.  Muscles  of 
foot, 

VI.  Centers  of  variability  ;  while  variation  is  uni- 
versal, it  rises  to  a  maximum  in  those  regions  of  most 
active   evolution.     In   man  these  centers  are  in   the 
forearm  and  hand  for  the  muscular  system. 

VII.  Particulate  inheritance,   and  correlated  vari- 
ation. 


LECTURE   XVIII. 

THE  GASTR^A  THEORY  OF  H DECKEL. 

Prof.  Oliver  P.  Jenkins. 

There  have  always  been  attempts  at  classifications 
of  animals  and  plants,  with  a  view  to  bringing  order 
out  of  the  confusion  that  their  immense  variety  of 
forms  present  to  us  when  their  relations  are  not  per- 
ceived. 

The  Point  of  View  of  Linnaeus. —  That  of  seizing 
upon  certain  resemblances  found  in  the  external  form, 
selected  with  the  view  of  conveniently  throwing  a  large 
number  of  forms  into  a  few  easily  recognized  groups, 
but  having  no  reference  to  either  general  plan  of  struc- 
ture or  community  of  descent. 

The  Point  of  View  of  Cuvier. —  That  of  structure. 
The  comparative  study  of  the  structure  of  animals 
led  to  the  conception  of  the  "doctrine  of  types,"  in 
which  relationships  took  no  account  of  community  of 
descent. 

The  theory  of  descent  introduces  a  wholly  new  point 
of  view  for  the  consideration  of  organisms.  That 
similarity  in  form  which  is  expressed  by  the  term 
homology  has  a  much  greater  significance  under  this 
theory. 

The  theory  of  descent  immediately  gave  an  immense 
impetus  to  embryological  investigation  as  a  means  of 


TABLE  OF  PARALLELISM  OF  ONTOGENY  AND  PHYLOGENY. 


Definition  of  the/orm* 
of  the  first  five  stages  of 
the  development  of  the 
animal  body. 

ONTOGENESIS. 
The  first  five  stages  of 
the  individual  develop- 
ment. 

PHYLOGENESIS. 

The  first  five  stages  of 
the  phyletic  or  histori- 
cal development. 

FIRST  STAGE  OF  DE- 

1. —  MONKRULA. 

1.  —  MONERON. 

VELOPMENT. 

Animal  egg  with- 

Most ancient  an- 

A simple  cytod  (a 

out  a  nucleus  (when 

imal  Monera,  origi- 

plastid    without    a 

the  egg-riucleus  has 

nating  by  spontane- 

nucleus). 

disappeared,     after 

ous  generation. 

being  fructified). 

SECOND     STAGE     OF 

2.  —  OVULUM. 

2.  —  AMOEBA. 

DEVELOPMENT. 

Animal  egg  with 

Animal  Amoeba1. 

A  simple  cell  (a 

nucleus    (a   simple 

plastid  containing  a 

egg  cell). 

nucleus). 

THIRD  STAGE  OF  DE- 

3. —  MORULA. 

3.  —  SYN  AMCEBA. 

VELOPMENT. 

(Mulberry  Form.) 

An  aggregation  of 

A  community  (an 

Globular  heap  of 

Amoebae 

aggregation  of  iden- 
tical simple  cells). 

homogeneous 
'  '  cleavage  spheres.  '  ' 

FOURTH    STAGE    OF 

4.  —  PLANULA. 

4.  —  PLAN.E. 

DEVELOPMENT. 

(Ciliated  Larva.) 

Many-  celled 

A  solid  or  blad- 

Many-celled larva 

primaeval   animal 

der-shaped,   globu- 
lar,  or  oval    body, 
composed     of    two 

without     mouth, 
composed  of  differ- 
ent cells. 

without     mouth, 
composed     of     two 
kinds    of    different 

kinds    of  different 

cells. 

cells  ;     externally 

ciliated,    internally 

non-ciliated  cells. 

FIFTH  STAGE  OF  DE- 

5. —  GASTRULA. 

5  —  GASTR^A. 

VELOPMENT. 

(Larva  with  Mouth.) 

Many  -  eel  led 

A  globular  or  oval 

Many-celled  with 

primaeval  animal 

body  with  simply  in- 

intestines   and 

with  intestine  and 

testinal    cavity   and 

mouth  ;     intestinal 

mouth  ;     intestinal 

mouth-  opening. 

wall  with  two  lay- 

wall with  two  lay- 

Body wall  composed 

ers. 

ers     (Primary  form 

of  two    layers  ;    an 

of     zoophytes     and 

externally    ciliated 

worms.  ) 

ento-derm   (dermal 

layer),  an  internal- 

ly non-ciliated  ento- 

derm  (gastral  layer) 

42  THE    GASTR/EA    THEORY    OF    H.ECKEL. 

determining  the  true  phylogenetic  relationships  of 
animals. 

Through  embryological  study  the  doctrine  of  the 
origin  of  all  organisms  from  a  single  form  was  first 
put  on  a  firm  foundation. 

Review  of  the  most  important  embryological  dis- 
coveries pointing  to  this  demonstration  made  by  many 
embryologists. 

Haeckel  first  formed  these  facts  into  a  theory,  which 
he  called  the  Gastraea  Theory.  Statement  of  the  theory 
as  formulated  by  Haeckel.  (See  Table  on  page  41. 
The  table  is  taken  from  History  of  Creation,  1880.) 

Illustrations  of  the  gastraea  theory  in  the  develop- 
ment of  sponges,  jelly-fishes,  star-fishes,  worms,  ar- 
thropods, and  the  different  branches  of  vertebrates. 

The  gastraea  theory  in  the  light  of  more  recent  in- 
vestigations. Difficulties  presented  which  it  does  not 
adequately  solve. 

Other  theories  which  have  been  proposed  to  meet 
these  difficulties. 

The  great  influence  of  the  gastraea  theory  on  em- 
bryological study.  Its  value  judged  by  the  results  of 
this  influence.  Its  relation  to  vertebrate  embryology. 

The  relation  of  embryological  investigation  to  theo- 
ries of  development. 


LECTURE   XIX. 
THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  EYE. 

Pro/.  Oliver  P.  Jenkins. 

The  senses  and  sense  organs  as  illustrations  of 
gradual  development  of  very  complex  processes  ac- 
complished hy  very  complex  organs  out  of  very  simple 
ones. 

General  view  of  sense  organs  of  vertebrates.  The 
essential  elements.  The  accessory  parts. 

Illustrated  in  more  detail  hy  the  human  eye  and 
vision.  Outline  of  the  eye,  optic  nerve,  and  visual 
centers. 

The  Eye. —  Essential:  Retina  and  optic  nerve. 
Their  elements.  Accessory  :  Choroid  and  iris  ;  scle- 
rotic and  cornea  ;  humors  and  lens  ;  muscles  and 
nerves  ;  conjunctiva  and  lids.  Brief  statement  of 
functions  of  each. 

Development  of  the  eye  in  an  individual  vertebrate. 
(Ontogeny.) 

Outline  of  the  development  of  the  germinal  layers. 
The  formation  of  the  neural  canal.  The  budding  out 
of  the  optic  vesicles,  and  a  history  of  these  to  the 
formation  of  retina  and  the  optic  nerve.  Formation 
of  the  accessory  parts. 

Differences  in  development  of  eyes  of  fish,  frog, 
lizard,  bird,  mammal. 


44  THE    ORIGIN    OF    THE    EYE. 

Eyes  of  invertebrates.  Great  range  of  structure. 
What  constitutes  an  eye.  Simplest  eye.  Pigment 
Bpot  with  nerve  fibers.  Eye  of  Nais. 

Eyes  of  mollusks  showing  series  of  increasing  com- 
plexity ;  of  the  limpet ;  of  the  abalone  ;  of  the  snail ; 
of  the  squid.  Development  of  eyes  of  mollusks.  The 
more  highly  developed  passes  through  the  stages  repre- 
sented in  the  lower  forms. 

Eyes  of  insects.     Simple.     Compound. 

All  eyes  alike  in  that  they  consist,  in  the  essential 
parts  (retina  and  nervous  elements),  in  a  number  of 
epidermal  cells  with  long  internal  processes  —  the  one 
specialized  for  being  affected  by  light,  the  other  for 
the  conduction  of  impulses  thus  generated,  and  further 
in  having  other  epidermal  cells  developed  into  groups, 
in  intimate  relation  with  these,  the  visual  centers. 
The  meaning  of  accessory  parts.  The  properties  of 
protoplasm.  The  physiological  division  of  labor  illus- 
trated in  the  organs  of  vision. 


LECTURE    XX. 

THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  EAK. 

Pro/.  Oliver  P.  Jenk'utx. 

The  auditory  organ.     What  we  learn  through  it. 

Outline  of  its  structure.  External  ear.  Middle  ear. 
These  two  are  accessory  organs.  Their  functions. 
Internal  ear.  Position  and  relations  of  the  auditory 
cells  and  the  auditory  nerves  fibers.  These  are  the 
essential  parts. 

Outline  of  the  development  of  the  human  ear.  Its 
development  compared  with  that  of  the  eye.  Origin 
of  the  essential  elements  out  of  the  upper  germinal 
layer. 

The  ears  of  vertebrates  ;  that  of  birds  ;  of  reptiles  ; 
of  batrachians  ;  of  different  kinds  of  fishes.  Each  of 
these  compared  with  the  human  ear. 

In  the  development  of  the  human  ear  successive 
stages  are  reached  comparable  to  a  series  of  ears  of 
lower  vertebrates. 

Auditory  organs  of  vertebrates.  Their  diversity  in 
form  and  location.  Their  community  of  origin  from 
the  outer  layer  of  cells  (epidermal). 

Organs  of  sense  of  smell,  of  taste,  and  of  touch  ex- 
amined briefly  as  to  their  structure  and  development. 

Each  shows  that  the  essential  elements  have  arisen 
from  the  outer  layers  of  cells. 


46  THE    ORIGIN    OF    THE    EAR. 

Recent  discoveries  in  regard  to  the  sense  cells  and 
sensory  nerve  fibers  in  the  common  earthworm. 

A  comparison  of  these  scattered  sense  cells  and  fibers 
to  those  of  the  organs  of  special  sense. 

The  origin  of  the  sense  organs  as  the  result  of 
high  differentiation,  and  specialization  of  cells  of  the 
epidermis  which  are  uniformly  alike.  A  further  illus- 
tration of  the  principles  of  physiological  division  of 
labor. 

The  relation  of  the  subject  of  the  origin  of  the  sense 
organs  to  that  of  the  origin  of  the  senses,  and  of  the 
origin  of  all  that  depends  upon  the  senses. 


LECTURE   XXL 

THE  LAW  OF  INDIVIDUALITY. 

Xo  two  individuals  exactly  alike.  The  "  divine 
initiative"  in  the  individual  which  prevents  it  from 
being  a  slavish  copy  of  any  who  have  gone  before. 
Intensified  by  specialization  of  parts,  as  it  gives  play 
for  more  perfect  division  of  labor,  for  greater  play  of 
variation. 

Every  advance  gives  room  for  more  protoplasm. 
"There  is  always  room  for  the  man  of  force,  and  he 
makes  room  for  many."  The  world  is  never  full  of 
life,  for  there  is  always  room  for  something  better 
adapted  to  each  set  of  its  varied  conditions. 

Individuality  produced  by  : 

1.  Double  parentage. 

2.  Division    of    hereditary    material    in    ova    and 
spermatozoa  ;  formation  of  polar  bodies,  Nature's  con- 
trivances to  insure  variation. 

3.  Law  of  acceleration  and  retardation. 

4.  Law  of  use  and  effort ;  effects  of  self-activity. 

5.  Variation    in    environment  ;    little   direct   effect 
except  through  its  effect  on  self-activity,  and  through 
the  weeding-out  process  of  natural  selection  ;  destruc- 
tion of  the  unadapted. 

6.  Other  laws  not  yet  understood. 

Survival  of  the  fittest  dependent  on  existence  of  the 
fittest.  "  Origin  of  the  fittest "  a  difficult  and,  in  some 
degree,  unsolved  problem. 


LECTURE   XXII. 

THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  EXISTENCE. 

No  one  doubts  it  ;  no  one  realizes  it.  More  born  than 
mature  ;  all  live  who  can  ;  all  destroyed  who  cannot 
meet  the  conditions  ;  the  killing  never  indiscriminate. 

Law  of  Malthus  (Thomas  Malthus,  1798  :  "  Prin- 
ciples of  Population").  Man  tends  to  increase  in 
geometric  ratio ;  food  supply  in  arithmetical  ratio. 
Criticisms  of  this  law  as  a  partial  truth.  Darwin's 
application  of  this  law  to  animals  and  plants.  Any 
rate  of  increase  in  a  limited  world  leads  to  a  struggle 
for  existence.  Ratio  of  increase  of  minor  importance, 
for  all  geometric  progressions  in  time  outrun  all  arith- 
metical progressions.  Those  increase  who  do  not  live 
ki  beyond  their  income,"  the  rest  perish. 

Herschel's  observation  on  man.  Not  hard  matter 
enough  in  the  earth  for  the  bones  of  the  men  that 
might  theoretically  be  alive. 

Increase  of  protozoa.  Bacteria  would  fill  sea  in  a 
month.  Rate  of  increase  of  codfishes  ;  of  sparrows  ; 
of  elephants  ;  of  man  ;  of  flies.  "  Three  flies  will  de- 
vour a  dead  horse  as  quickly  as  a  lion."—- Linnseus. 
One  hundred  trillion  flies  in  the  world  today  ;  in  three 
months  one  pair  would  produce  as  many.  Should 
each  fly  have  the  most  favorable  environment  no  one 
could  escape  the  plague  of  flies.  Ten  million  birds  in 
England  ;  fifty  million  birds  and  birds'  eggs  die  every 
year,  and  of  this  destruction  no  traces  seen. 


THE    STRUGGLE    FOR    EXISTENCE.  49 

A  time  of  final  equilibrium,  a  peace  which  is  ap- 
parent, not  real,  and  changed  with  a  breath  ;  rhythm 
of  adaptation. 

No  permanence  in  this  ;  present  conditions  but 
phases  of  change.  Small  events  change  current  of 
affairs.  Seasons  return,  or  appear  to  return,  because 
conditions  return.  Conditions  never  return  in  the 
world  of  life. 

When  increase  ceases,  extinction  may  begin. 

Disappearance  of  Species. —  Auk,  Labrador  duck,  sea 
cow,  passenger  pigeon,  buffalo.  Dependence  of  species 
on  species.  Clover  dependent  on  cats  ;  on  New  Zea- 
land bees  ;  seal,  salmon,  and  otter  ;  carp  and  canvas- 
backs. 

Types  hardened  or  sifted  by  struggle  as  against 
others.  "  The  Yankee  in  King  Arthur's  Court "  ;  "  The. 
Scheezicks"  ;  "The  Man  Who  Would  Be  King." 

Substitution  of  Species. —  Rats,  flies,  and  water-cress 
in  New  Zealand.  Rabbits,  foxes,  thistles,  in  Australia. 

Domestic  Animals  and  Plants. —  Species  or  races  made 
by  man.  Man  changes  conditions,  and  Nature  makes 
these  forms.  Races  of  dogs,  sheep,  horses,  pigeons, 
fruit.  Goodale's  observation.  Along  lines  of  variation 
anything  possible  with  time  and  patience.  Pigeons  : 
pouter,  carrier,  fantail,  tumbler,  frill-back,  owl.  Each 
fancier  sure  of  separate  origin  of  the  variety  he  rears. 
Somerville  ;  sheep  chalked  on  a  wall.  Youatt ;  ma- 
gician's wand.  Species  never  return  unless  condi- 
tions return.  Solid-hoofed  pigs  ;  Ancon  sheep.  Porto 
Santo  rabbits.  Power  of  time,  by  addition  of  incre- 
ment of  many  generations.  Species  never  return  to 
original  type  unless  all  conditions  return. 


LECTURE   XXIII. 
RESPONSE  TO  EXTERNAL  STIMULUS. 

u  There  was  a  child  went  forth  every  day, 
And  the  first  object  he  looked  upon,  that  object  he 

became, 
And  that  object  became  a  part  of  him  for  the  day  or 

a  part  of  the  day, 
Or  for  many  years  or  changing  cycles  of  years. 

"  The  early  lilacs  became  a  part  of  the  child,"  etc. 

-  Walt    Whitman. 

The  environment  always  present ;  always  varied. 
Every  living  being  affected  by  it.  Constant  pressure 
counts.  "  Nature  and  Nurture."  "  Schadet  nichts  im 
Entenhof  geboren  zu  sein  wenn  man  in  Schwanenenei 
gelegt  ist." — Andersen.  "At  the  feet  of  the  strong 
god,  Circumstance."  How  much  of  our  actions  ap- 
parently our  own  are  but  the  ordinary  result  of  en- 
vironment on  the  average  man.  Are  nations  and  men 
creatures  of  circumstance  ?  In  large  degree  yes,  but 
the  worthy  and  the  noble  in  some  sense  create  their 
own  environment. 

The  effect  of  environment  shown  in  our  regard  for 
agriculture;  for  education;  for  training  of  men,  and 
horses,  and  trees.  Evil  effect  of  evil  surroundings. 
The  slums  beget  slums.  In  the  ideal  conditions  no 
evil  environment  should  be  tolerated. 


RESPONSE    TO    EXTERNAL    STIMULI'S.  51 

Hut  the  effect  of  environment  is  not  direct.  Else 
would  affect  all  creatures  alike.  Environment  can 
only  affect  the  individual  as  it  stimulates,  limits,  or 
diminishes  its  functional  activity.  Similarly  medicine 
accomplishes  nothing,  except  through  effect  on  func- 
tional activity. 

Superiority  of  man  to  environment. 

"  Count  me  o'er  earth's  chosen  heroes  ;  they  were 
men  that  stood  alone." — Lowell. 


LECTURE  XXIV. 

N  A  T  u  R  A  i,  SELECTION. 

Darwin's  phrase  synonymous  with  Spencer's  term, 
"  Survival  of  the  fittest,"  in  the  struggle  for  existence. 
Fittest  under  the  peculiar  conditions.  Nature  no 
respecter  of  persons.  Not  necessarily  best  or  most 
specialized.  But  so  in  long  run  ;  through  human 
reaction.  Illustration  of  a  swimmer  lost  through  help- 
fulness. In  long  run  he  who  brings  sunshine  and 
freedom  to  others  receives  sunshine  and  freedom  from 
others. 

"  With  much  the  same  result  as  that  which  the 
farmer  obtains  by  selecting  his  seed  corn,  the  gardener 
by  thinning  out  his  beds,  or  the  cattle  raiser  by  sell- 
ing off  his  roughest  calves  for  veal,  Nature  is  at  work  on 
an  inconceivably  great  scale,  thinning  out  the  least 
perfect  individuals  of  each  species." — Bergen. 

Illustrations.  Rabbits,  grey,  brown  and  white  ; 
weasels  ;  owls  ;  bears  ;  ptarmigans.  Colors  of  fishes  : 
surface  colors  ;  zone  of  olive  green  alga? ;  zone  of  red 
algae  ;  zone  of  inky  darkness  ;  phosphorescent  spots. 
Birches  of  Norway.  The  Hrse  series.  Evolution  of 
lungs  and  swim-bladder. 

Mimicry  ;  use  of  insignificance.  Recognition  marks. 
Division  of  labor.  Sexual  selection.  Preference  of 
females  for  bright  colors  ;  bright  colors  go  with 
strength.  Questions  unsettled. 


NATURAL    SELECTION.  53 

Everywhere  apparently  perfect  adaptation  ;  never 
wholly  perfect,  because  still  more  perfect  may  come. 
Change  of  habitat  of  animals  or  plants.  Every  ani- 
mal and  every  plant  is  trying  to  extend  its  range  in 
all  directions.  Each  species  would  cover  the  world 
were  it  not  that  barriers  prevent.  These  barriers  may 
be  mountains,  rivers,  or  seas  ;  barriers  of  nature  ;  cold, 
heat,  dryness,  or  storms  ;  barriers  of  climate;  opposi- 
tion of  other  species  already  occupying  the  ground  ; 
barriers  of  the  struggle  for  existence. 

Natural  selection  perpetually  going  on.  Perpetual 
better  adaptation  to  conditions.  Conditions  change 
and  change  adaptations. 

Relation  of  natural  selection  to  progress.  No  "in- 
nate tendency  toward  progression."  No  progress  where 
adaptation  is  perfect.  Arises  from  organic  dissatisfac- 
tion. Where  no  reason  for  change,  no  progress. 
Withdrawal  from  the  struggle  for  existence  means 
degradation.  The  bulk  of  living  forms  makes  but 
slight  advance. 

"  Whatever  is  desirable  becomes  necessary  as  soon 
as  it  is  possible."  Whatever  becomes  useless  disap- 
pears by  degrees. 

Subliminal  Consciousness.  Its  possibility.  The  pres- 
ent range  of  consciousness  even  in  the  finest  man  is 
small.  All  things  we  know  are  relative.  We  recog- 
nize a  certain  range  in  sound,  color,  size,  force.  Every- 
thing comparative  and  lying  between  two  infinities. 
The  universe  and  the  ahnenplasma.  "  Every  meanest 
day  the  conflux  of  two  eternities."  "  Time  as  long  as 
space  is  wide."  "  To  look  before  and  after  "  in  some 
slight  degree,  a  result  of  human  specialization.  Even 


•54:  NATURAL    SELECTION. 

specialization  is  a  comparative  thing.  The  simplest 
infusorian*a  wonderfully  complex  thing  by  the  side  of 
primitive  life.  Compared  even  with  the  infinite  future 
of  finite  mind,  man  may  be  a  fragment  of  undifferen- 
tiated  cosmic  dust.  "The  largest  son  of  time  that 
wandered  singing  through  a  listening  world  will  be 
as  much  forgot  as  a  canoe  that  crossed  the  bosom  of  a 
lonely  lake  a  thousand  years  ago." 

Does  natural  selection,  with  its  associated  laws  and 
forces,  explain  the  origin  of  species  ?  Open  questions. 

Intensification  of  fishes  in  tropics  ;  of  men  in  cities  ; 
of  butterflies  ;  specialization  of  parts  accompanied  by 
proportionate  degradation  of  other  parts. 

Obscure  Applications  of  Natural  Selection. —  Equality 
of  numbers  of  the  sexes  ;  division  of  labor  between 
sexes.  Limitation  of  size.  Length  of  life.  "Touches 
all  things  mortal  with  cold  immortal  hands."  Pain 
a  necessity  of  sensation,  an  associate  of  will  ;  both 
outgrowths  from  motion  and  locomotion.  Mind  (as 
distinguished  from  reflex  nerve  action)  itself  a  re- 
action in  organisms  "  sore  bestead  by  environment." 
Power  to  change  environment  necessitates  sensation 
and  will.  From  these  follows  pain.  Susceptibility  of 
pain  greatest  in  those  having  the  greatest  capacity  of 
power.  Suffering  a  "  baleful  legacy  "  from  specializa- 
tion ;  power  to  do  and  power  to  enjoy.  The  index  to 
high  development. 

"Can  it  be,  O  Christ  in  heaven, 

That  the  highest  suffer  most  ? 
That  the  strongest  wander  farthest 
And  most  helplessly  are  lost  ?" 

Why  this  must  be  true. 


NATURAL    SELECTION.  55 

Immortality  and  insignificance  exchanged  for  spe- 
cialization and  pain. 

Specialization  implies  dependence. 
Differentiation  goes  with  integration. 


LECTURE   XXV. 

NATURAL  SELECTION  AND  ETHICS. 

Natural  selection  a  world  process  without  ethical 
quality  in  itself.  As  gravitation  brings  about  physi- 
cal order,  so  natural  selection  brings  about  organic 
adaptation.  It  can  be  no  respecter  of  persons,  can 
grant  no  justice  but  its  own. 

A  fallacy  which  dies  very  slowly  is  the  idea  that 
Nature's  operations  execute  human  justice.  "  Rain 
falls  on  just  and  unjust."-  —  Luke,  xiii.  Tower  of 
Siloam.  The  Galileans  whose  blood  was  mingled  with 
the  sacrifices.  "  Earthquakes  ;  their  cause  and  cure." 
It  is  only  in  human  reaction  from  Nature's  processes 
that  a  moral  element  comes  in.  Gravitation  makes 
men  upright.  Natural  selection  in  the  long  run  favors 
those  who  help  others. 

At  first  a  premium  placed  on  egoistic  qualities. 
Man  succeeds  because  of  the  ape  and  tiger  qualities. 
But  ape  and  tiger  have  rudiments  of  justice,  else  they 
could  not  hunt  in  bands.  Need  of  fair  play  the  base 
of  ethics. 

"Nature  does  not  cosset  nor  pamper  us.  Provi- 
dence has  a  wild,  rough,  incalculable  road  to  its  end. 
It  is  of  no  use  to  try  to  whitewash  its  huge  mixed  in- 
strumentalities, or  to  dress  up  that  terrific  benefactor 
in  the  clean  shirt  and  white  neckcloth  of  the  student 
of  divinitv."—  Emer*on. 


NATURAL    SELECTION    AND    ETHICS.  57 

Much  of  the  misery  of  the  world  due  to  the  belief 
that  Nature  will  somehow  make  an  exception  in  our 
favor.  That  she  will  somehow  ease  up  on  her  laws 
when  she  comes  to  our  case.  Belief  that  Nature  can 
or  ought  to  interfere  in  the  interest  of  easy  living. 

But  the  forces  of  Nature  and  laws  of  Nature  each  one 
its  own  justice,  and  no  other.  Nature  no  respecter  of 
persons.  How  could  she  be  ?  Moral  indifference  of 
Nature.  How  could  Nature  be  morally  other  than  in- 
different ?  Moral  indifference  of  multiplication  table. 
Nature's  laws  differ  from  multiplication  table  in  be- 
ing more  complex,  not  more  variable.  Two  times  two 
equals  four  the  world  over.  But  we  count  that  ten 
thousand  dollars  at  compound  interest  should  yield 
more  for  a  good  cause  than  a  bad  one.  So  it  will  in 
the  long  run  ;  not  through  the  multiplication  table, 
but  through  human  reaction. 

Bad  men  think  that  they  can  trick  a  complex  law  ; 
good  men  that  they  can  bend  it  to  help  them.  Both 
are  deceived.  A  varying  multiplication  table :  de- 
struction of  science.  Varying  law  :  the  destruction  of 
the  universe. 

"  If  God  should  wink  at  a  single  act  of  injustice  the 
whole  universe  would  shrivel  like  a  cast-off  snake- 
skin." 

Laws  of  Nature  best,  else  they  would  not  be.  A 
broken  law  would  be  a  discarded  universe. 

Ruskin  on  the  "  Pathetic  Fallacy."  Basis  of  poetry. 
Superstition  grows  out  of  poetry  taken  literally  by  the 
unpoetic.  Illustrations: 

"They  brought  her  home  across  the  foam  — 
The  creeping,  crawling,  cruel  foam." 


58  NATURAL    SELECTION    AND    ETHICS. 

"  Thou,  O  sea,  stern  mother  of  my  soul." 

"  Day  by  day  the  sunlight  glittered  on  the  vacant, 
smiling  seas." 

"  The  rushing,  incurious  billows." 
Hut  billows  are  neither  cruel,  stern,  nor  smiling. 

"  Nature  red  in  tooth  and  claw, 
From  scarped  cliff  and  quarried  stone. 
She  cries,  a  thousand  types  are  gone. 
I  care  for  nothing,  all  shall  go." 

Bounteous  Nature 
"  Loves  the  grass  green  meadows, 
The  grazing  kines  sweet  breath." 

"  Her  just  keeping  on  the  same,  calmer  than  clock- 
work, and  not  caring, 

Nor  finding  anything  to  blame,  is  worse  than  if  she 
took  to  swearing." 

Modern  Pessimism. —  Failure  to  recognize  perfect  and 
necessary  justice  of  natural  law,  and  that  ethics 
belongs  to  human  reaction,  itself  a  necessary  law,  but 
separate. 

Law  of  Heredity. —  Repeats  evil  and  good.  The  past 
cannot  let  go  of  us,  nor  we  of  it.  Conservatism  in  life. 

Law  of  Gravitation. —  Drowns  a  prophet  or  a  rat. 
Brings  cosmic  order. 

Law  of  Mutual  Aid. —  Giving  may  cause  or  perpet- 
uate misery  as  well  as  create  strength. 


NATURAL    SELECTION    AND    ETHICS.  59 

Law  of  Self- Activity. —  Wolves  and  devils  enjoy  their 
calling.  Wicked  flourish  like  a  green  bay  tree.  Not 
wickedness,  for  this  conflicts  with  human  reaction. 

Law  of  Sensation. —  Carry  pleasure,  pain,  sorrow, 
alike.  Pleasure  ;  pain  a  warning  of  injury  or  degen- 
eration. Nature  tempers  the  wind  to  the  shorn  lamb 
—  allows  pain  to  cease  when  useless. 

Laws  of  Nature  not  good  nor  bad,  but  true.  Never- 
theless goodness  lasts  and  wickedness  fails.  "God 
consents,  but  only  for  a  time."  "  God's  errands  never 
fail."  "  What  God  does  for  man  he  does  through  man." 

Thus  arise  the  laws  of  human  reaction,  from  which 
comes  human  justice.  The  impulses  that  "make  for 
righteousness."  Slowly,  wastefully,  but  surely  comes 
the  growth  of  ethics  from  human  reaction. 

Why  God's  errands  never  fail. 

In  two  ways  at  least : 

Through  Human  Help. —  The  bank  of  human  kind- 
ness. Those  who  bring  sunshine  and  freedom  into 
the  lives  of  others  cannot  keep  it  from  themselves. 

Through  Self -Help  and  Self -Devotion.  —  Power  of 
earnestness  and  devotion. 

The  strength  of  prayer.  Sempach:  Mars  ton  Moor. 
Thy  will  be  done,  and  let  my  will  be  a  part  of  it. 

What  if  prayer  will  not  bring  rain,  or  make  a  crop, 
or  have  no  money  value  ?  Its  value  to  you.  Pente- 
cost's remark. 

"  The  essence  of  prayer  is  to  bring  two  things  into 
unison  —  the  will  of  God,  and  the  will  of  man.  Super- 
stition imagined  no  doubt  that  prayer  would  change 
the  will  of  God  ;  but  the  more  spiritually-minded 
have  always  understood  that  the  will  which  must  be 


A      *F 


.-o 


CT>V 

crl  JT 


60  NATURAL    SELECTION    AND    ETHICS. 

modified  in  prayer  was  the  will  of  man." — Bernard 
Bomnquet. 

Strength  of  John  Brown.  "  The  games!  man  I  ever 
saw,"  the  governor  of  Virginia  said. 

"  Nobody  sent  me  here.  I  ohey  only  my  own  im- 
pulses and  those  of  my  maker.  I  acknowledge  no 
master  in  human  form." 

u  Let  no  man  trouble  me.  I  bear  on  my  body  the 
marks  of  the  Lord  Jesus." 

"Careless   seems  the   great   avenger,  history's   pages 

but  record 
One  death  grapple  in  the  darkness  twixt  old  systems 

and  the  Word. 
Truth  forever  on  the  scaffold  —  wrong  forever  on  the 

throne ; 
But  the  scaffold  sways  the  future,  and  behind  the 

dim  unknown 
Standeth  God  within  the  shadow,  keeping  watch  above 

his  own."  — Lowell. 


LECTURE   XXVI. 
LAW  OF  SELF- ACTIVITY. 

Progress  of  Evolution  through  interaction  of  par- 
tially opposed  forces.  Regular  movement  could  not 
spare  either.  Variation  and  heredity  ;  Nature  and 
nurture  ;  change  and  conservatism  ;  egoism  and  altru- 
ism ;  cooperation  and  individualism.  Law  of  mutual 
aid,  and  law  of  self-activity. 

Nature  a  thrifty  investor  ;  withdraws  all  unused  in- 
vestments. Parable  of  talents.  Branch  in  which  no 
sap  moves  dies.  Unexercised  functions  disappear  in 
the  individual.  The  organs  atrophy.  So  in  the  race. 
What  is  latent  long,  atrophies  by  degrees.  Nature 
changes  her  plans  as  conditions  change.  Heredity 
causes  her  to  remember  them.  Pineal  eye.  Gills. 
Environment  affects  the  individual  chiefly  by  modi- 
fying local  or  general  self-activity.  What  comes  out 
of  a  man  determines  his  life.  Learn  to  do  right  by 
doing  right. 

1.  Self-activity  the  cause  of  individual  progress. 

2.  Cause  of  specific  acceleration.     Is  it  inherited  ac- 
celeration ?     Or  does  Nature  favor  those  who  use  their 
powers  as  against  those  with  equal  powers  unused  ? 
Are  use  and  non-use  hereditary,  or  not  ? 

3.  Source  of  happiness.     Enjoyment  of  life.    Misery 
comes  from  lack  of  self-activity. 

Causes  of  personal  degeneration  : 


62  LAW    OF   SELF-ACTIVITY. 

1.  Ennui,  the   pressure  of  existence,   unvisited    by 
effort.     "  The  very  fiends  weave  ropes  of  sand  rather 
than  taste  pure  hell  in  idleness."     Spiritual  pauper- 
ism a  phase  of  decline.     Lady  Clare  Vere  de  Vere. 
Galton  on  the   English  peerage.     Sickness  or  injury 
not  necessarily  the  causes  of  ennui.     Darwin  ;  Tom 
Dunstan. 

2.  Dissipation. —  Passions  which  burn  and  burn  out. 
Deceptions  of  the  senses.     The  "  pleasures  like  poppies 
spread,"  are  not  pleasures,  but  tricks  on  the  nervous 
system.     These   destroy   it  ;    their   results    phases   of 
degradation.     "  The  world  looks  different  to  the  man, 
and   he  looks   different   to   the   world."     These   sub- 
jective imaginary  pleasures  followed  by  horrors  which 
are  equally  subjective.     Alcoholism  ;  opium  ;  narcot- 
ism ;  sensuality  ;    trances.     Pessimism    largely  result 
of  affected  sensorium.     Religious  excitement.     Nature 
favors  the  creature  which  looks  with  clear  eyes  on  its 
surroundings.    "  Who  ever  with  a  frolic  welcome  takes 
the  thunder  and  the  sunshine." 

3.  Slavery. —  Dragging  down   of  effort  without  the 
element  of  consent.     No  virtue  in  hard  work,  but  work 
to  a  purpose.     Work  without  a  pride  in  it  tends  to 
degradation.     Tendency  to  drown  evil  feelings  arising 
from  degradation  in  self-deceiving  stimuli,  which  tend 
in  the  same  direction.     Even  a  slave  need  not  work 
slavishly. 

4.  Old  age. 

5.  Evil  associations. 

6.  Arrested  development. 

Natural  selection  destroys  those  who  find  no  pleas- 
ure in  action ;  for  such  do  not  act.  Natural  selection 
eliminates  the  victims  of  ennui,  dissipation,  or  slavery. 


LAW    OF    SELF- ACTIVITY.  63 

Happiness  comes  from  exercise  of  functions  in 
any  grade  ;  overcoming  of  opposition  ;  doing  good  to 
others  ;  conquests  of  mind  ;  love  of  friends.  All  hap- 
piness is  positive  and  strengthening. 

Athletics  ;  war  ;  exploration  ;  study ;  mountaineer- 
ing. No  man  engaged  in  positive  exercise  of  functions, 
either  high  ones  or  low  ones,  ever  complained  of  ennui. 
Knnui  means  that  dry  rot  has  set  in.  It  is  Nature's 
means  of  telling  us  so. 

"  Most  of  the  vice  of  the  world  is  vice  of  corrosion." 
-  G.  S.  Hall. 

Greek  philosophy:  "Though  life  be  sad,  there  is  joy 
in  the  living  it."  Those  who  do  are  paid  as  they  go. 
Hamlet ;  content  only  in  action. 

Thoreau's  "  word  for  freedom  and  wildness."  "  O, 
to  have  passions  like  these."  Myron  Wilkins.  "  The 
man  that  had  a  sore  heel  on  the  tramp  always  re- 
members it  with  a  grin." — Myron  Reed. 

"  By  the  brand  upon  my  shoulders, 

By  the  gall  of  clinging  steel, 
By  the  welt  the  whips  have  left  me, 

By  the  scars  that  never  heal, 
By  the  eyes  grown  old  with  staring 

At  the  sun-wash  on  the  brine, 
I  am  paid  in  full  for  service, 

Would  that  service  still  were  mine." 

—  Kipling. 

Freedom;  a  fundamental  need  of  human  beings  for 
their  own  development. 

Its  limitations  ;  bounded  by  mutual  aid. 
William  Watson's  "  Dream  of  Man." 


LECTURE   XXVII. 
LAW  OF  MUTUAL  HELP,  OR  ALTRUISM. 

1.  Shown  in  conjugation  of  cells.     Hence  arises  di- 
vision   of   labor    between    the   sexes.     Conjugal   love. 
Filial  love.     Parental  love.     Formation  of  the  family. 
Source  of  variation. 

2.  Shown  in  the  aggregation  of  cells.     Hence  arises 
compound  animals.     Specialization.     Physical  divis- 
ion of  labor.     Source  of  variation. 

8.  Shown  in  altruism.  Qualities  that  bind  men  and 
animals  together  in  tribes  or  nation.  Live  and  let 
live  rising  to  live  and  help  live.  From  the  Silver  Rule 
to  the  Golden  Rule. 

Progressive  ethics. 

From  the  basis  of  altruism  rises  human  justice,  re- 
ligion, science  entering  into  the  work  of  others. 

Altruism.  Mutual  help  in  the  three-fold  struggle  — 
against  forces  of  Nature ;  against  others  of  unlike 
character  ;  against  others  of  like  character. 

Civilization  essentially  security  against  violence  in 
the  struggle  for  existence,  enabling  us  to  enter  in  work 
of  the  others  of  the  past  as  well  as  of  the  present. 

The  animal  virtues  giving  way  to  the  Christian  vir- 
tues. Rights  of  others.  Rights  of  lower  animals. 
Bayary  Taylor's  story. 

A  bounty  on  Cain.  Ishmaelites.  Our  strength 
drawn  from  others. 


LAW    OF    MUTUAL    HELP,    OR    ALTRUISM.  65 

"  No  man  is  great  till  he  can  see 
How  less  than  little  he  would  be 
If  all  alone  and  stark  and  bare 
He  hung  his  sign  out  anywhere." — Riley. 

Will  altruism  do  away  with  the  struggle  for  exist- 
ence ?  Can  we  save  all  the  waste  of  competition  by 
cooperation  ?  Can  do  little  more  than  do  our  own 
duty,  and  work  for  civic  freedom,  justice,  and  honesty. 
Evolution  moves  slowly.  The  world  never  moved  by 
dynamite,  nor  lifted  by  boot-straps. 

Loss  in  altruism.  Mutual  help  induces  mutual 
dependence.  The  self-sufficiency  of  single  all  —  the 
independence 'of  Robinson  Crusoe.  Weakness  of  civ- 
ilization. But  this  price  must  be  paid  for  the  ad- 
vantages. Specialization  goes  with  integration  ;  that 
with  mutual  dependence. 

Degradation  of  cooperation. 

Hydroids.  Corals.  Sponges.  Portuguese  man-of-war. 

Wherever  there  is  no  premium  placed  on  variations 
nor  on  superior  self-activity,  degeneration  sets  in. 

New  Harmony.  Icaria.  Kaweah.  Bellamy's  plans. 
All  colonies  must  fail  where  men  reap  who  have  not 
sown  ;  where  rewards  come  alike  to  the  active  and  the 
idle,  the  bright  and  the  dull  ;  where  drones  and 
workers  have  equal  access  to  the  honey  cells.  Each 
man  must  be  responsible  for  his  own  destiny. 

Marriage  by  official  selection.  Life  of  official  per- 
mission. Failure  of  socialistic  attempts  through  see- 
ing half-truths  only.  Law  of  self-activity  must  not  be 
impeded  by  law  of  help. 

Future  possibilities  of  altruism.  Tendencies  towards 
state  socialism.  Dangers. 


LECTURE   XXVIII. 

THE  ORIGIN  OF  GOODNESS. 

Prof.  Edward  A.  Ross. 

Right-doing  may  have  any  one  of  many  motives, 
No  mystery  when  prompted  by  fear,  dread  of  punish- 
ment, hope  of  reward,  love  of  praise,  pride,  vanity 
worldly  prudence,  confusion  as  to  one's  own  interests 
force  of  conventionality,  or  habit.  Only  when  sucli 
motives  are  wanting  do  we  ascribe  goodness. 

Right-doing  is  outward,  and  means  conduct  looking 
to  the  well-being  of  others.  Goodness  is  inward,  and 
means  making  the  welfare  of  others  our  interest  —  joj 
in  another's  joy,  pain  in  his  pain.  The  springs  of  oui 
action  come  to  lie  elsewhere  than  in  ourselves.  W< 
say  in  effect :  "  Thy  ill  is  my  ill,  thy  weal  my  weal 
thy  ends  are  my  ends."  Goodness  amounts  to  altru- 
ism, or  otherness,  which  in  turn  implies  sympathy. 

The  origin  of  otherness  the  great  mystery  of  hurnarj 
nature.  Selfness  or  egoism  easy  to  understand,  bul 
altruism  challenges  explanation,  seems  unnatural 
Can  there  be  soul  nerves  ?  Some  even  deny  that  pure 
altruism  exists. 

The  romantic  explanations.  Is  union  or  sepa- 
ration our  primitive  state  ?  Plato.  Kant  and  the 
"  Ding  an  Sich."  Hegel's  "  Absolute."  Schopenhauer 
Hartmann's  "Unconscious."  Emerson's  "Oversoul.' 


THE    ORIGIN    OF    GOODNESS.  67 

"One  central  fire  glows  in  all."  "Parts  of  a  single 
continent." — Matthew  Arnold,  The  heaven  before  in- 
dividuation.  Sympathy  a  reminiscence  of  the  soul's 
ancient  estate.  We  are  Brahma  fallen  into  multi- 
plicity, and  hence  into  selfishness  and  sin.  Sympathy 
recognizes  our  underlying  oneness  —  intimates  the 
identity  of  all  life.  "  Tat  twam  asi."  The  self  transi- 
tory. The  I  is  an  ice  crystal  born  of  the  All,  and  des- 
tined to  melt  into  the  All.  We  are  from  the  One  en 
route  to  the  One.  Sympathy  a  reminiscence  and  a 
prophecy. 

"  Some  little  talk  awhile  of  Me  and  Thee, 
There  was  —  and  then  no  more  of  Thee  and  Me" 

—  Omar  Khayyam. 

The  explanation  from  Evolution.  The  individual 
came  first  —  no  primeval  soul-plasm  —  consciousness 
of  self  preceded  consciousness  of  others.  Egoism  older 
than  altruism.  Man  not  fallen  from  unity  into  multi- 
plicity, but  rising  from  multiplicity  to  unity.  Sym- 
pathy a  derivative  feeling  of  practical  origin  —  in  no 
wise  supernatural  or  mystical  —  developed  by  the  cos- 
mic process  of  selection  through  struggle.  The  moral 
paradox. 

Sub-human  altruism.  Family  cohesion — love,  ma- 
ternal, sexual,  paternal.  Group  cohesion  in  gregar- 
ious species  —  ants,  bees,  rooks,  wolves,  deer.  Such 
altruism  developed  and  limited  by  natural  selection, 
instinctive,  irrational,  inconsistent. 

Human  altruism.  Vast  changes  with  growth  of 
intelligence.  (1)  Range  of  sympathy  widened  with 
greater  power  of  interpreting  signs  of  feeling.  (2) 


68  THE    ORIGIN    OF   GOODNESS. 

Altruistic  impulses  developed  into  moral  rules  or 
principles.  (3)  Society  in  its  own  interest  curbs  self- 
ishness, and  stimulates  self-sacrifice  by  ethical  codes 
and  religions  and  moral  ideals. 

Simple  ethical  forms.  Love,  hate,  sympathy,  pity, 
malice,  generosity,  greed,  revenge. 

Derivative  ethical  forms.  Sense  of  honor,  of  duty, 
of  sin,  conscience,  remorse,  repentance,  self-renuncia- 
tion, self-mortification,  contrition,  atonement,  justice, 
veracity,  honesty. 

Altruism  and  our  duties  to  others.  Mother  love, 
conjugal  love,  filial  affection,  claims  of  kindred,  caste 
and  professional  spirit,  esprit  du  corps,  loyalty,  patriot- 
ism, civism,  philanthropy,  humanitarianism. 

The  so-called  duties  to  self.  Partly  altruistic  — 
cleanliness,  decency,  chastity;  partly  egoistic  — tem- 
perance, self-control,  abstinence  from  suicide ;  partly 
esthetic  — -  abstinence  from  sensuality,  brutishness, 
gluttony,  filthiness,  uncouthness,  slovenliness. 

The  foundations  of  altruism.  Shall  we  give  a  cup 
of  water  to  the  thirsty  wayfarer  for  the  sake  of  a  re- 
ward in  this  life  —  "casting  bread  on  the  waters"  ;  or 
in  another  life  —  Mohammedan  paradise  ;  because  it  is 
God's  will  —  the  "Commandments"  ;  from  a  sense  of 
duty  — "  Categorical  Imperative  "  ;  for  the  sake  of  some 
one  we  love  —  "in  His  name"  ;  or  for  the  sake  of  the 
wayfarer  himself  ? 

The  justification  of  altruism.  Whence  flow  our  chief 
miseries.  How  men  torture  each  other.  Each  can  in- 
flict more  injury  than  he  can  ward  off.  Egoism  leads 
to  collision,  strife,  wounds,  pain,  and  disappointment ; 


THE    ORIGIN    OF    GOODNESS.  69 

altruism   leads  to  harmony,   joy,  cooperation,  peace, 
contentment,  and  social  health. 

The  greater  abounding  of  altruism.  We  err  on  the 
side  of  egoism.  Our  natures  more  altruistic  than  we 
think.  We  gain  prosperity,  but  lose  peace  of  con- 
science. What  men  live  by.  In  what  riches  consist. 
Opulence  in  love. 


LECTURE   XXIX. 
DEGENERATION. 

Meaning  of  high  and  low  in  biology. 

High  may  mean  :  complexity  of  structure  in  gen- 
eral ;  complexity  of  special  structure  ;  complexity  of 
nervous  organization  ;  adaptation  to  complex  environ- 
ment. 

Man  the  highest  animal  through  complexity  of  nerv- 
ous system  and  derived  powers  of  will,  self-activity, 
cooperation,  speech,  and  abstract  reasoning.  All  the 
product  of  emphasis  laid  on  living  by  his  wits.  But 
specialization  of  one  or  many  parts  implies  deteriora- 
tion in  others,  as  the  ape-like  strength  and  spryness 
are  little  needed  by  man.  Degeneration  of  single 
organs  as  their  highest  functions  become  useless.  A 
law  of  Evolution.  Example  :  pineal  eye  ;  jaw  and  jaw 
muscles  ;  gills  in  mammals  and  birds.  Strength  in 
simplicity  ;  in  government  ;  in  education  ;  in  lan- 
guage. 

Degeneration  is  decline  in  rank.  Takes  place  when- 
ever the  struggle  for  existence  permits  life  on  a  lower 
plane  of  activity  or  of  adaptation. 

1.  May  take  the  form  of  adaptation  to  less  complex 
surroundings,  as  in  the  seal,  or  blind  fish.     Then  ac- 
companied by  specialization  in  minor  structures. 

2.  Reduction  of  vigor.     Preliminary  to  extinction. 

3.  Simple  divergence,  from  isolation  and  narrowed 
range. 


DEGENERATION.  71 

4.  Reduced  self-activity,  and  simultaneous  with- 
drawal from  struggle  for  existence.  Examples  :  Para- 
sites, quiescent  animals,  compound  animals. 

Distinction  of  degenerate  forms  from  forms  primi- 
tively simple.  Used  up  potentialities.  Myrick's  law 
of  lost  organs. 

Degeneration  and  extinction  of  too  highly  special- 
ized forms  ;  Dionaea  compared  with  Drosera. 

When  individual  self-activity  is  lowered,  and  con- 
ditions of  environment  are  such  that  destruction  does 
not  set  in,  we  have  conditions  of  continuous  degenera- 
tion. Origin  of  degenerate  forms  shown  by  embry- 
ology. For  the  individual  in  its  development  goes 
over  the  whole  road,  be  it  upward  or  downward. 

Amblyopsis,  the  blind  fish,  descended  from  Cholo- 
gaster,  the  fish  of  the  Dismal  Swamp.  Deep  sea  fishes. 
Typhlogobius,  the  blind  goby  of  Point  Loma. 

Tunicates,  and  their  fish-like  young. 

Sacculina,  and  its  crab-like  progeny.  Born  as  a 
young  crab,  but,  living  at  the  expense  of  others,  loses 
self-activity,  but  is  not  destroyed  in  competition, 
and  is  degraded  into  a  parasitic  sac,  with  no  organs 
except  root-processes,  ovaries,  and  brain.  Further 
degradation  of  male  sacculina. 


LECTURE   XXX. 
DEGENERATION  IN  MAN. 

Possible  to  breed  human  sacculina  by  same  meth- 
ods ;  shelter  from  destruction,  remove  incentive  to 
individual  action,  and  allow  unfitness  to  mate  with 
unfitness. 

Cretinism  in  Valley  of  Aosta.  Elements.  Military 
selection  ;  heredity  susceptibility  to  goitre  ;  influence 
of  indiscriminate  charity  whereby  the  worst  fares  bet- 
ter than  the  best. 

Pauperism.  Analogy  to  sacculina.  Its  existence  de- 
pendent on  getting  something  for  nothing.  The  Lord's 
poor,  the  devil's  poor,  and  paupers. 

Dr.  Dugdale's  studies  of  the  Jukes  family.  "  Mar- 
garet, the  mother  of  criminals."  Hereditary  para- 
sitism. 

McCulloch's  studies  of  the  "  Tribe  of  Ishmael." 
Paupers  of  California,  Missouri,  Indiana,  Illinois, 
Kentucky,  Virginia,  and  the  Carolinas  derived  from 
England's  stock,  and  kept  alive  by  public  and  "pri- 
vate outdoor  relief."  Origin  of  Georgia  "  poor-white 
trash." 

Pauperism  can  be  exterminated,  as  swamps  are 
drained ;  not  by  giving,  but  by  removal  of  causes. 
Remedies  :  Destruction  of  the  slums  and  their  social 
gangrene ;  closing  outdoor  relief ;  checking  feeding 
of  vagabonds,  and  indiscriminate  giving ;  saving  the 


DEGENERATION    IN    MAN.  73 

children,  and  stimulating  them  to  self-activity  ;  cut- 
ting off  the  root  tentacles,  and  making  parasites  self- 
helpful,  or  confining  them  that  the  generation  may 
cease.  Slums  a  culture-basis  for  moral  and  physical 
disease.  Make  parasitism  the  hardest  mode  of  life  and 
the  most  active.  Sicily.  Venice.  Climatic  effects. 

The  duty  of  charity  to  save  the  unfortunate ;  to 
permit  those  incapable  by  heredity  to  become  extinct 
with  the  least  possible  suffering.  Good  and  evil  of 
pension  systems. 

No  way  to  make  humanity  happier,  except  to  make 
humanity  stronger  and  better.  If  humanity  has  some- 
thing to  do,  and  does  it  with  a  pride  in  its  work,  it 
will  be  reasonably  happy.  Train  those  we  have,  and 
let  heredity  repeat  the  best,  and  not  the  worst.  Slums 
breed  slums ;  idlers  and  criminals  are  not  the  stock 
from  which  the  men  of  the  future  may  spring. 

Charity  consists  in  making  men  better  adapted 
to  environment,  not  in  easing  up  the  environment 
around  individual  men.  "What  shall  we  do  with 
John  Jones  ?  "  What  did  we  do  with  Tom  Huxley, 
or  Mike  Faraday  ? 

"  Whatever  begot  the  charitable  impulse  in  the  first 
place,  it  survived  because  it  was  useful." — Warner. 
Survival  of  people  and  races  with  altruistic  sentiments 
"  a  sufficient  answer  to  those  who  object  to  all  philan- 
thropic undertakings  as  mischievous  meddling  with 
the  benign  course  of  Nature."  "  Why  not  be  brutal  ?  " 
Because  brutality  is  barbarous  ;  brutality  is  expensive. 
Why  not  let  the  vicious  and  profligate,  the  dirty  and 
the  diseased,  exterminate  themselves  ?  Because  gan- 
grene is  not  a  profitable  caustic.  "  Social  cancers  in- 


74  DEGENERATION    IN    MAN. 

feet  more  than  they  eat  away."  The  slums  destroy 
those  who  live  in  them,  but  infect  and  drag  others  to 
destruction. 

"If  enlightened  self-interest  is  a  good  thing,  enlight- 
ened self-sacrifice  is  a  better  thing.  One  instinct  as 
well  as  the  other  may  be  misdirected  and  harmful, 
but  is  equally  capable  of  enlightenment."  "  No  race 
ever  became  extinct  through  excess  of  brotherly  love." 
—  Warner.  Charity  as  fire  insurance.  Charity  scat- 
tered as  corn  to  catch  the  chickens. 

"The  final  result  of  saving  people  from  their  folly 
would  be  to  fill  the  earth  with  fools." —  Spencer. 

Charity  as  an  ethical  duty.  Read  Warner  :  "  Ethi- 
cal Aspects  of  the  Question  ;  Evolution  of  Charities  " 
(pp.  268-9). 


LECTURE   XXXI. 

THE  INDUSTRIAL  STRUGGLE  FOR  EXISTENCE. 
Dr.  Amos  G.   Warner. 

I.  The  number  of  persons  who  can  maintain  a  given 
standard  of  living  in  a  given  territory  depends  upon 

1.  Original  resources  of  the  district. 

2.  Amount  and  character  of  accumulated  informa- 
tion.    State  of  the  arts  and  sciences,  and  the  organ- 
ization of  industry. 

3.  Character  of  the  people,  especially  as  to  physique, 
intelligence,  and  morality. 

4.  Amount  of  accumulated  capital. 

II.  The  expansibility  of  the  civilized  man  tends 

1 .  To  limit  population  before  the  pathological  checks 
of  war,  pestilence,  and  famine  are  operative  ;  but 

2.  To  maintain  the  struggle  for  existence  even  when 
there  is  no  absolute  pressure  of  population  against  the 
means  of  subsistence.     If  all   were  content  with   the 
bare  necessities  of  life,  Europe  could  support  a  popu- 
lation of  eight   hundred   millions.     "  Progressive  de- 
sire" makes  it  common  for  one  man  to  consume  what 
would  suffice  for  the  maintenance  of  thousands. 

III.  The  industrial  struggle  for  existence  is  to  secure 
possession  of  economic  goods.     It  is  waged 

1.  Between  man  and  natural  forces,  including  plants 
and  animals  as  a  part  of  Nature-distinct-from-man. 


76  THE    INDUSTRIAL    STRUGGLE    FOR    EXISTENCE. 

2.  Between  individuals,  a  family  counting  as  an  in- 
dividual for  most  purposes. 

3.  Between   classes,     (a)   Employer  and  employed. 
(b)  The  propertied  and  unpropertied,  and  lenders  and 
borrowers,      (c)    Organized    and    unorganized    labor. 
(d)  Producers  and  consumers,     (e)   Races,  in  so  far 
as  different  races  live  together  under  one  government. 

4.  Between    enterprises,     (a)    Source   of    variation 
here  is  often  conscious  effort  to  vary,     (b)   Between 
enterprises    differently   located,     (c)  Between    enter- 
prises  differently  organized  :    factory   vs.   shop  ;  ma- 
chinery vs.  hand  labor  ;  cooperative  and  profit-sharing 
enterprises  vs.  those  under  "captains  of  industry"; 
stock  companies  vs.  partnerships  ;  etc.     (d)  Large  en- 
terprises vs.  small  ones. 

5.  Between    nations,     (a)    By    war  —  opium    war. 
(b)  By  tariffs,   bounties,  and  restrictions.     Example 
of   successful   aggressions  :    English   navigation    acts. 
Example  of  unsuccessful  aggression  :  German   sugar 
bounties,     (c)  By  so  regulating  the  interval  between 
individuals,  classes,  and  enterprises  that  general  and 
permanent  interests  may  not  be  sacrificed  to  general 
and    temporary  gain,  e.  </.,  Sunday  labor,  length  of 
labor  day,  dangerous  occupations,  wasteful  duplica- 
tion of  plant,  etc. 


LECTURE   XXXII. 
ISOLATION  AS  A  FACTOR  IN  EVOLUTION. 

Barriers  separating  forms  permit  them  to  differen- 
tiate. "  Migration  holds  species  true,  localization  lets 
them  slip."  Compare  the  local  variations  in  forms 
in  California  with  those  in  Mississippi  Valley.  Much 
greater  number  of  varieties,  fewer  forms. 

Compare  races  and  dialects  in  Europe  with  those  in 
America. 

Physiological  segregation.  Peculiar  forms  so  sepa- 
rated as  to  despise  each  other.  Tendency  towards 
sterility. 

Race  prejudices  ;  deer  ;  men. 

Hybridism.     Its  value  as  a  test  of  species  slight. 

1.  Possibility  of  amphimixis. 

2.  Possibility  of  fertilized  egg  developing. 

3.  Possibility    of    resultant    animal    having    fertile 
germ  cells. 


LECTURE   XXXIII. 
ARE  SPECIES  REAL  ? 

"Systematic  work  would  be  easy  were  it  not  for 
this  confounded  variation,  which,  however,  is  pleasant 
to  me  as  a  speculatist,  though  odious  as  a  systematist. 
.  How  painfully  true  it  is  that  no  one  has  a 
right  to  examine  the  question  of  species  who  has  not 
minutely  described  many.  .  .  .  Certainly  I  have 
felt  it  humiliating,  discussing  and  doubting  and  ex- 
amining over  and  over  again,  when  in  my  mind  the 
only  doubt  has  been  whether  the  form  varied  today  or 
yesterday.  .  .  .  After  describing  a  set  of  forms  as 
a  distinct  species,  tearing  them  up  and  making  them 
separate,  and  then  making  them  one  again  (which  has 
happened  to  me),  I  have  gnashed  my  teeth,  cursed 
species,  and  asked  what  sin  I  had  committed  to  be  so 
treated." —  Darwin. 

Variation  of  Species. —  Does  one  species  change  into 
another  ?  The  crucial  test  of  the  theory  of  the  forma- 
tion of  species  by  natural  laws. 

The  old  idea  of  species.  From  Linnaeus's  "  Systema 
Naturae  "  (1758).  The  idea  of  variety.  Homo  sapiens, 
the  aboriginal  man,  and  the  five  varieties  :  Europseus, 
Asiaticus,  Afer,  Americanus,  and  Monstrosus.  Homo 
troglodytes,  the  orang-outang,  a  second  species  of  man, 
according  to  Linnaeus. 

Fallacy  of  old  ideas  discovered  by  a  close  compari- 
son of  species.  Lamarck.  Darwin. 


ARE    SPECIES    REAL  ?  79 

Studies  of  Darwin.  Animals  of  the  Galapagos  Isl- 
ands ;  persistence  of  edentates  in  South  America. 

Types  persist  through  space  and  through  time. 
Species  change  with  either  space  or  time.  With  time, 
because  time  gives  rise  to  events  which  cause  diverg- 
ence. All  divergence  really  dichotomous.  With  space, 
because  with  space  come  barriers  which  again  pro- 
duce dichotomous  divergence,  in  both  cases  followed 
by  isolation  and  segregation  of  characters. 

Study  of  small  variations  in  species.  Methods  of 
Professor  Baird.  Pacific  railroad  survey  (1856-8). 
Mexican  boundary  survey. 

Studies  of  Dr.  Joel  A.  Allen  (Mammals  and  Winter 
Birds  of  Florida).  Species  and  sub-species.  Known 
presence  of  intermediate  forms  sole  test  of  validity  of 
species. 

Illustration  :  Shore-lark,  Otocoru  alpestris,  and  its 
varieties  :  praticola,  leucol&ma,  arenicola,  giraudi,  me- 
nilli,  chrysolfzma,  adusta,  slrigata,  rubea,  pallida. 

Song  sparrow,  Melospiza  fasciata,  and  its  varieties. 

Bluebird,  Sialia  sialis,aretica,8ind  mexicana,  distinct 
species. 

Meadow  lark,  Sturnella  magna  and  neglecta,  doubt- 
ful species. 

Flicker,  Colaptes  auratus  and  cajer,  doubtful  species. 

My  own  experience  with  species. 

The  trout ;  Salmo  gairdneri,  the  steel-head  ;  Salmo 
irideus,  the  rainbow  trout ;  Salmo  mykiss,  the  "  cut- 
throat trout,"  and  its  varieties  :  lewisi,  in  the  Mis- 
souri ;  stomias,  in  the  Platte  and  Arkansas ;  mac- 
donaldi,  in  the  Twin  Lakes ;  spilurus.  in  the  Rio 
Grande ;  pleuriticus,  in  Utah  Basin  ;  henshawi,  in 


80  ARE    SPECIES    BEAL  ? 

Lake  Tahoe ;  bouvieri,  in  Waha  Lake ;  agua  bonita, 
u  golden  trout,"  of  Mount  Whitney  ;  gilberti,  in  Kern 
River  ;  shasta,  in  McCloud  River  ;  all  varieties  of  one 
species  ;  all  would  have  been  regarded  fifteen  years 
ago  as  good,  species. 

Catalogue  of  fresh-water  fishes  of  United  States  :  in 
1876,  670  species  ;  in  1868,  665  ;  in  1885,  587  ;  now 
about  £60,  although  125  added  since  1876. 

Changes  of  species  similar  to  changes  in  words  in 
derivative  languages.  Thus  :  kerasos  (Greek),  cerasus 
(Latin),  ceriso  (Italian),  cereso  (Spanish),  cerise 
(French),  cherry  (English),  kirsch  (German),  kers 
(Danish),  cerejo  (Portuguese),  and  so  on.  Changes  of 
aster,  star,  and  other  words. 

Laws  of  change  of  words  analogous  to  those  of  change 
in  species.  Where  words  come  from.  Where  species 
come  from.  Left-over  species  in  swamps,  caves,  and 
depths  of  the  sea  ;  left-over  words  in  isolated  moun- 
tain valleys.  As  a  fauna  is  made  up  of  species,  which 
have  come  from  many  regions,  so  is  the  language  made 
up  of  words  carried  over  from  many  sources.  Sequoia, 
a  left-over  tree.  Left-over  types  in  Australia. 

The  old  idea  of  species  passed  away  forever.  Can 
no  more  return  to  it  than  astronomers  to  the  Ptolo- 
maic  idea  of  the  solar  system.  No  one  who  knows 
the  facts  could  ask  us  to  return.  Some  lessons  from 
geology.  Fossil  shells. 

All  forms  diverging ;  no  structure  returns  to  prev- 
ious stages.  What  are  intermediate  forms  ?  "  Miss- 
ing links?"  Link  between  horse  and  cow?  Not  a 
cow-horse,  or  a  horse-cow,  but  something  far  more 
primitive  than  either,  with  the  character  of  neither. 
This  now  recognized  in  the  extinct  coryphodon. 


ARE    SPECIES    REAL  ?  81 

"Missing  link"  between  man  and  monkey;  not 
man  nor  monkey,  but  something  simpler  than  either, 
and  with  generalized  characters  from  which  either 
could  have  arisen.  No  living  monkey  likely  to  have 
been  ancestor  of  man. 

All  forms  diverging  ;  those  not  now  man  never  can 
be,  for  divergence  has  given  them  qualities  not  in  line 
of  human  descent. 


LECTURE   XXXIV. 
CLASSIFICATION. 

Homology  the  basis  of  classification. 

Artificial  Classifications.  Linnaeus  ;  classes  of  plants 
on  number  of  stamens  ;  orders  of  plants  on  number  of 
pistils. 

Fishes  whose  tails  move  vertically,  and  those  which 
flap  horizontally. 

Natural  Classifications.  Cuvier,  Jussieu.  Possibility 
of  natural  classification  one  of  the  strongest  argu- 
ments for  unity  of  life.  All  forms  known  arrange 
themselves  in  a  way  analogous  to  the  branches  of  a 
tree.  All  diverge  forward  ;  traced  backward  they  con- 
verge. 

Homologies  of  words  similar  to  those  of  animals 
and  plants.  Non-homologous  languages.  Chinese  and 
English.  But  all  languages  subject  to  Evolution  and 
divergence.  So  with  all  organisms. 

Missing  links  in  classification.  Horse  and  cow  not 
a  horse-cow,  but  the  unspecialized  coryphodon.  Link 
between  whale  and  fishes  not  a  whale-fish,  but  rather 
a  reptile.  Cats,  or  even  man,  are  nearer  fishes  than 
the  degenerate  whales,  which  are  degenerations  from  a 
type  rudely  described  as  bear-like  or  dog-like. 

How  change  a  fish  into  a  whale  ?  A  whale  into  a 
fish  ?  Impossible  now.  In  any  transformation  we 
must  go  back  to  unspecialized  forms,  which  still  retain 
the  potentialities  of  some  other  type. 


CLASSIFICATION.  83 

Generalized  types.  Embryonic  types.  Prophetic 
types.  Recognized  by  Agassiz  in  the  geological  record. 

Development  of  vertebrates. 

Evolution  and  differentiation  of  fishes. 

Why  the  "highest  fishes  first"  ?  Confusion  in  the 
meaning  of  "  highest." 

Derivation  of  batrachia  from  fishes. 

Derivation  of  reptiles,  birds,  and  mammals. 


LECTURE   XXXV. 
APPLICATION  OF  THEORY  OF  DESCENT  TO  TAXONOMY. 

Prof.  John  IT.  Comstock. 

Definition  of  the  terms  generalized  and  specialized  : 

Specialization  by  addition.  Hind  legs  of  grasshop- 
pers. Maxilla3  of  lepidoptera.  Pectinations  of  an- 
tennae. Tracheal  gills.  Wings  of  insects. 

Specialization  by  reduction.  Loss  of  legs  in  ar- 
thropoda.  Loss  of  mandibles  in  lepidoptera. 

Modification  of  the  form  of  parts  through  change 
in  function.  The  swim-bladder  of  fish  a  degenerate 
lung.  Dermal  glands  of  insects  changed  into  tracheae. 
Tracheae  furnished  by  addition  with  trachea!  gills. 
Tracheal  gills  changed  into  wings.  If  these  supposi- 
tions be  true,  the  wings  of  insects  were  derived  from 
dermal  glands. 

Myrick's  law  of  lost  organs  :  When  an  organ  has 
wholly  disappeared  in  a  genus  other  genera,  which 
originate  as  off-shoots  from  this  genus,  cannot  regain 
this  organ,  although  they  may  develop  a  substitute 
for  it.  Arthropods  with  more  than  six  legs  not  derived 
from  the  hexapoda.  Insects  with  mouth  part  not 
derived  from  mouthless  insects.  Winged  insects  not 
derived  from  forms  that  have  lost  their  wings. 

Rapidity  with  which  organs  are  lost  when  they  be- 
come unnecessary.  Wings  of  females  of  certain  moths. 
Hence  a  form  lacking  an  organ  may  be  only  slightly 
removed  in  other  respects  from  the  progenitor  of  forms 
that  still  possess  that  organ. 


LECTURE   XXXVI. 

APPLICATION  OF  THEORY  OF  DESCENT  TO  TAXONOMY. 
—  OBJECT  AND  METHODS  OF  TAXONOMIC  WORK. 

Prof.  John  H.  Comstock. 

Object  and  methods  before  the  acceptance  of  the 
theory  of  Evolution.  Making  of  catalogues.  Group- 
ing of  related  forms  without  understanding  the  bond 
of  union. 

The  tracing  of  the  phylogeny  of  groups. 

Aid  derived  from  paleontology. 

Aid  derived  from  the  study  of  those  existing  forms 
that  are  generalized  in  structure. 

Peculiar  specializations  of  generalized  forms,  "  side- 
wise  developments." 

Proposed  method  of  taxonomic  work.  (1)  The  de- 
termination of  the  probable  form  of  the  progenitor  of 
the  group  to  be  classified.  (2)  The  tracing  of  the 
various  ways  in  which  this  form  has  been  modified  by 
descent ;  i.  e.,  the  determination  of  the  phylogeny  of 
the  group. 

Difficulties  of  carrying  out  this  plan.  Poorness  of 
the  palseontological  record.  Hence,  usually,  the  neces- 
sity of  determining  the  primitive  type  by  a  study  of 
existing  generalized  forms  ;  and  of  determining  the 
various  ways  in  which  this  type  has  been  modified  by 
a  study  of  the  more  specialized  of  the  existing  mem- 
bers of  the  group. 

How  shall  one  determine  which  are  the  more  gen- 


86  TAXONOMY. 

eralized,  and  which  are  the  more  specialized  members 
of  a  group  of  organisms  ? 

The  structure  of  a  highly  organized  animal  or  plant, 
taken  as  a  whole,  is  too  complicated  for  the  human 
mind  to  grasp  at  once.  Hence  the  suggestion  to  begin 
with  the  study  of  a  single  organ  possessed  by  the 
members  of  the  group  to  be  classified.  Study  the 
variations  in  form  of  this  organ.  Determine  its  func- 
tion or  functions.  Trace  out  its  phylogenetic  develop- 
ment, keeping  constantly  in  mind  the  relation  of  the 
changes  in  form  of  the  organ  to  its  function.  In  other 
words,  endeavor  to  read  the  action  of  natural  selec- 
tion upon  the  group  of  organisms  as  it  is  recorded  in 
a  single  organ.  The  data  thus  obtained  will  aid  in 
making  a  provisional  classification  of  the  group. 

Then  another  organ  is  selected,  and  its  history 
worked  out  in  a  similar  way. 

The  results  of  the  two  investigations  are  then  com- 
pared, and  where  they  differ  there  is  indicated  the 
need  of  renewed  study.  For  if  rightly  understood  the 
different  records  of  the  action  of  natural  selection 
will  not  contradict  each  other.  The  investigation  is 
continued  by  the  study  of  other  organs,  and  a  corre- 
lating of  the  results  obtained  until  a  consistent  history 
of  the  group  has  been  worked  out. 

This  method  differs  from  that  commonly  employed 
in  being  a  constant  effort  to  determine  the  action  of 
natural  selection  in  the  modification  of  the  form  of 
organisms,  in  order  to  better  adapt  their  parts  to  per- 
form their  function.  Ordinarily  little  or  no  attention 
is  devoted  to  the  study  of  the  function  of  organs  in 
purely  taxonomic  works. 


LECTURE   XXXVII. 

APPLICATION:  OF  THEORY  OF  DESCENT  TO  TAXONOMY. 
—  ILLUSTRATION  OF  THE  APPLICATION  OF  THIS 
METHOD.  THE  DESCENT  OF  THE  LEPIDOPTERA. 

Prof.  John  H.  Comstock. 

Selection  of  the  organs  of  flight  as  the  first  organs 
to  be  studied. 

Importance  of  wings  to  the  lepidoptera.  Chief  or- 
gans of  locomotion  of  adult.  Present  in  all  known 
species.  Vary  greatly  in  form  ;  hence  they  have  been 
the  field  of  extensive  action  of  natural  selection. 

The  results  of  this  action  are  recorded  in  characters 
which  are  easily  read.  These  characters  are  varia- 
tions in  form,  in  the  number  and  arrangement  of  the 
supporting  "  veins,"  in  the  relation  of  the  two  pairs  of 
wings  to  each  other,  and  in  the  nature  of  the  clothing 
of  the  wings. 

1.  Variations  in  form  and  venation.  Broad  wings 
with  many  veins,  narrow  wings  with  comparatively 
few  veins,  and  every  gradation  between  these  two  ex- 
ist. Which  form  probably  represents  most  closely  the 
wings  of  the  primitive  lepidopterous  insects  ? 

The  wings  are  organs  of  flight ;  those  members  of 
the  order  which  fly  best  have  narrow  wings  with  com- 
paratively few  veins  ;  such  are,  therefore,  probably 
the  more  specialized. 

The  wide-winged  members  of  widely  separated  fami- 


88  TAXONOMY. 

lies  agree  in  the  possession  of  wing  veins,  which  are 
lacking  in  the  narrow-winged  members  of  the  same 
families.  The  media,  and  the  third  anal  vein.  If  the 
narrow-winged  forms  are  considered  the  more  general- 
ized, we  are  forced  to  conclude  that  the  media  and  the 
third  anal  vein  have  been  independently  developed 
in  each  family  where  they  exist,  which  is  very  im- 
probable. 

Conclusion  that  the  primitive  lepidopterous  insect 
possessed  broad  wings,  furnished  with  at  least  eight 
principal  veins,  including  the  media  and  three  anal 
veins. 

Conclusion  strengthened  by  a  study  of  wings  of  in- 
sects of  other  orders  ;  also  by  a  study  of  fossil  insects. 

The  chief  method  of  specialization  of  the  wings  of 
insects  as  regards  their  area  and  their  venation  has 
been  by  reduction.  This  specialization  has  changed 
the  wing  from  an  organ  which  acted  as  a  kite,  or  a 
parachute,  to  one  fitted  for  vigorous  flight. 

Origin  of  wings  not  yet  satisfactorily  explained. 
Theory  of  origin  from  tracheal  gills.  Theory  of  origin 
from  keel-like  expansions  of  the  sides  of  the  body  seg- 
ments. 

Different  lines  of  descent  from  the  primitive  lepid- 
optera  indicated  by  different  methods  of  reduction. 
In  hepialis  and  micropteryx  the  anal  area  of  the  hind 
wings  is  greatly  reduced,  while  the  radius  retains  the 
maximum  number  of  branches.  In  all  other  lepid- 
optera  all  of  the  branches  of  the  radius  disappear 
before  the  anal  area  is  reduced.  Subdivision  of  the 
groups  thus  formed. 

2.  Relation  of  the  two  pairs  of  wings  to  each  other. 


TAXONOMY.  89 

Evidently  the  action  of  natural  selection  has  tended 
towards  uniting  the  two  wings  of  each  side  during 
flight  in  order  to  insure  their  synchronous  action. 
The  frenulum  and  the  frenulum  hook.  Compound 
frenulum.  Simple  frenulum.  Structure  of  simple 
frenulum.  Theory  as  to  origin  of  frenulum.  Sexual 
differences.  Results  of  experiments  with  trap  lan- 
terns. Superseding  of  frenulum  by  a  large  develop- 
ment of  the  costal  area  of  the  hind  wings.  Last  stages 
of  the  frenulum. 

Lepidoptera  which  have  neither  frenulum  nor  a 
large  development  of  the  costal  area  of  the  hind  wings. 
The  jugum.  Theory  regarding  the  relation  of  the  two 
pairs  of  wings  in  the  primitive  lepidoptera.  Division 
of  the  order  into  jugatse  and  frenatsR.  This  division 
coincides  exactly  with  the  primary  division  based  on 
the  relative  reduction  of  the  radius  and  anal  area  of 
the  hind  wings,  as  indicated  above. 

3.  The  clothing  of  the  wings.  Variations  in  the 
form  of  this  clothing,  hairs,  and  scales.  Variations 
in  the  arrangement  of  the  hairs  or  scales.  Function 
of  this  clothing.  Absence  of  cross  veins  in  wings  of 
lepidoptera.  Determination  of  the  more  generalized 
form  of  clothing.  Relative  degree  of  specialization  of 
scales  on  upper  and  lower  sides  of  wings,  on  fore  and 
hind  wings,  and  on  the  proximal  and  distal  portions 
of  the  same  wing.  Minute  structure  of  scales.  Prim- 
ary use  of  the  ribs  on  the  scales.  Secondary  use  of 
these  ribs  in  the  production  of  interference  colors. 
Examination  of  wing  of  blue  butterfly  with  reflected 
light  and  with  transmitted  light. 


90  TAXONOMY. 

Importance  of  Confirming  Result*  Obtained  in  the 
Study  of  One  Organ  by  the  Study  of  Other  Organs. 

A  classification  based  upon  the  study  of  a  single 
organ  must  be  considered  provisional. 

Illustration  drawn  from  tbe  Saturniidaf. 

Different  results  obtained  from  a  study  of  the  an- 
tennae, and  from  a  study  of  the  radius  of  the  fore  wings 
of  the  SaturniidiK. 

Conclusion  that  while,  as  a  rule,  the  tendency  of  nat- 
ural selection  is  towards  a  reduction  in  the  area  of  the 
wings,  thus  fitting  them  for  more  rapid  flight,  a  condi- 
tion may  arise,  as  a  high  specialization  of  an  organ  of 
special  sense  (presumably  an  organ  of  smell),  in  which 
a  soaring  flight  is  more  desirable.  Under  these  cir- 
cumstances selection  will  tend  to  widen  the  wings. 


LECTURE    XXXVIII. 

EVOLUTION   OF   PLANTS. 

Prof.  Douglas  H.  Campbell. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  study  of  evo- 
lutionary problems  must  be  confined  to  the  animal 
kingdom  ;  plants  offer  quite  as  many  and  equally 
convincing  proofs  of  the  law  of  Evolution. 

The  principal  data  are  obtained  from  two  sources- 
palaeo-botany,  i.  e.,  the  study  of  fossil  plants  ;  and  com- 
parative morphology  in  its  widest  sense,  that  is,  the 
study  of  the  structure  of  the  plant  in  all  its  parts  and 
at  all  stages  of  its  development.  Embryology  has 
given  here,  as  in  zoology,  the  most  important  clues  to 
relationships. 

Biology,  the  science  of  living  things  ;  not  of  animals 
alone.  Botany  as  truly  a  department  of  biology  as 
zoology  is. 

The  simplest  living  things  neither  plant  nor  animal. 
Protista. 

Uniformity  in  the  ultimate  structure  of  all  living 
things.  The  perfect  plant  or  animal  all  a  nucleated 
mass  of  protoplasm. 

Lowest  forms  of  plants.  Fission  plants.  Bacteria, 
blue-green  algae.  These  not  closely  related  to  the 
higher  plants. 

Volvocinea3  (green  monads)  probable  ancestors  of 
the  higher  plants.  Also  seem  related  to  the  flagellate 


92  EVOLUTION    OF    PLANTS. 

infusoria.  Active,  mostly  bi-ciliate  cells,  showing  both 
animal  and  plant  characters. 

From  the  active  vol vox  cell,  protococcus-like  forms 
probably  arose,  unicellar  non-motile  cells,  but  revert- 
ing at  times  to  the  active  condition. 

Next  higher  in  rank  the  confervoid  algae.  These 
may  have  arisen  from  protococcus  forms  by  the  cells 
remaining  together  after  fission  had  occurred.  Simpler 
forms  unbranched,  e.  </.,  conferva  ;  or  branched,  e.  g., 
cladophora.  These  also  produce  at  times  volvox-like 
ciliated  cells.  < 

Evolution  of  sex.  In  the  simplest  forms  the  whole 
unicellular  individual  is  at  once  vegetative  and  re- 
productive. At  first  reproduction  effected  by  simple 
fission,  purely  non-sexual.  In  simplest  form  of  sexual 
reproduction  two  individuals  fuse  into  one.  Next 
there  is  a  difference  in  the  size  of  the  two  individuals  ; 
the  larger,  the  female  ;  the  smaller,  the  male.  A  step 
higher,  the  female  cell  loses  the  power  of  motion, 
and  remains  passive  in  a  special  cell  (oogonium), 
where  it  is  fertilized  by  the  active  male  cell. 

Algae  and  fungi.  Fungi  a  specialized  group  of  ob- 
scure origin  ;  throw  no  light  on  the  origin  of  the 
higher  plants. 

Algae — green,  red,  brown.  The  former  a  generalized 
group  from  which  the  others  have  probably  sprung  ; 
the  others  highly  specialized,  mostly  marine  forms. 
The  green  algae  mostly  fresh  water  forms,  arid  import- 
ant as  the  progenitors  of  the  higher  land  plants. 


LECTURE   XXXIX. 
EVOLUTION  OF  THE  HIGHER  PLANTS. 

Pro/.  Douglas  PI.  Campbell. 

Bryophytes  (mosses  and  liverworts).  Have  prob- 
ably been  derived  from  the  higher  green  algae. 

Mosses  a  sharply  limited  specialized  group  in  con- 
trast to  the  generalized  class  of  the  liverworts.  The 
latter  show  affinities  on  one  hand  to  the  algae,  and  on 
the  other  to  the  ferns  ;  as  well  as  having  evident  rela- 
tionship to  the  mosses. 

Bryophytes  show  a  well-marked  alternation  of  a 
sexual  phase  (gametophyte),  and  non-sexual  stage 
(sporophyte). 

In  lower  forms  the  sporophyte  is  insignificant,  and 
entirely  devoted  to  spore  formation  ;  in  the  highest 
(anthoceros)  the  formation  of  spores  is  less  important, 
and  the  sporophyte  has  a  well  developed  assimilative 
system  of  tissues. 

Anthoceros  leads  directly  to  the  pteridophytes  (fern- 
like  plants)  in  which  the  sporophyte  develops  roots 
and  becomes  an  independent  plant.  Ophioglossum 
among  living  seem  to  come  nearest  to  anthoceros. 

In  pteridophytes  the  germinating  spore  gives  rise  to 
gametophyte  (prothallium),  which  becomes  more  and 
more  reduced  from  the  long-lived  liverwort-like  game- 
tophyte of  the  lower  homosporous  ferns  to  the  rudi- 
mentary gametophyte  of  the  heterosporous  forms.  In 


94  EVOLUTION    OF    THE    HIGHER    PLANTS. 

heterosporous  pteridophytes  the  gametophyte  is  dioe- 
cious, and  this  is  indicated  by  the  two  kinds  of  spores 
—  large  ones  (macrospores)  that  produce  female 
plants,  and  small  ones  (microspores)  that  produce 
males. 

Pteridophytes  the  highest  plants  in  which  the  male 
cells  ( sperm atozoids)  retain  their  primitive  motile 
condition,  and  recall  the  aquatic  origin  of  the  arche- 
goniates. 

Sporophylls  of  the  pteridophytes  the  first  rudiments 
of  flowers.  The  "cone  "  of  a  lycopodium  or  equisetum 
the  hornologue  of  the  flower  of  a  pine.  Both  consist 
of  groups  of  special  sporophylls.  Microspore  :  pollen 
grain  ;  macrospore  :  embryo  sac.  Pollen-sac  and 
ovule  are  morphologically  sporangia.  The  seed  is  a 
specially  developed  sporangium. 

In  spermaphytes  fertilization  effected  by  the  nucleus 
of  the  pollen  spore  carried  to  the  embryo-sac  by  the 
pollen  tube. 

Grymnosperms  and  angiosperms.  Naked-seeded  and 
covered-seeded  plants. 

Flowers  of  angiosperms  usually  have  necessary 
leaves  (petals,  sepals)  specialized  for  protection  and 
attraction.  The  latter  closely  correlated  with  visits  of 
insects. 

Modifications  of  flowers  and  insects  intimately  asso- 
ciated. Both  mutually  dependent  to  a  great  degree. 

Showy  and  edible  fruits  distributed  by  animals. 

Color,  odor,  nectar  of  flowers,  lures  to  insects. 

Mechanical  aids  to  cross-pollination.  Dioecism  ; 
proterandry  ;  proterogyny. 

Special  devices.  Dead  nettle  ;  sage  ;  orchids.  Hum- 
ming birds  and  flowers. 


LECTURE   XL. 
SPONTANEOUS  GENERATION. 

Assumed  by  early  writers.  Omne  vivum  ex  ovo. 
Omne  vivum  ex  vivo.  Discovery  of  infusoria.  Ehren- 
berg.  Assumption  of  their  spontaneous  generation, 
bridging  the  gape  between  living  and  non-living. 

Work  of  Bastian  on  breeding  infusoria  in  the  in- 
terest of  materialistic  philosophy. 

Work  of  Tyndall  on  cleaning  tubes  for  optical  ex- 
periments. 

Work  of  Lister  in  antiseptic  surgery. 

Work  of  Pasteur  on  diseases  of  vines. 

Work  of  Pasteur  and  others  on  fermentation. 

Work  of  Jenner  on  smallpox. 

Work  of  Koch  on  tuberculosis. 

Experiments  of  Tyndall  on  floating  matter  in  the 
air  shows  that  germs  of  infusoria  and  bacteria  are 
everywhere  present,  and  that  all  these  men  were  deal- 
ing with  the  same  phenomena,  the  unsuspected  germs 
of  unicellular  animals  and  plants,  not  easily  destroyed. 
Germ  theory  of  disease.  Fermentation  as  "  life  with- 
out air." 

No  evidence  that  spontaneous  generation  now  oc- 
curs. No  possibility  of  recognizing  it,  should  it  do  so. 


LECTURE   XLI. 
MAN'S  PLACE  IN  NATURE. 

Title  from  Huxley.  Essential  fact  of  biology  that 
man's  place  is  in  Nature.  Part  and  parcel  of  Nature. 

If  homology  indicates  blood  relationship,  nowhere 
are  homologies  more  clear  than  between  men  and 
monkeys. 

Man  differs  from  average  Old  World  monkey  struc- 
turally, less  than  these  differ  from  each  other.  An 
outside  intellect  would  not  doubt  his  blood  relation- 
ship with  them.  Our  doubts  arise  from  the  fact  that 
man  is  an  interested  party. 

Group  of  primates. 

Attempts  to  separate  man  as  a  group  from  other 
primates.  Structural  distinctions  slight.  Tail.  Hair. 
Form  of  great  toe.  Length  of  arm.  Attitude  in  walk- 
ing. Size  of  lower  jaw.  Size  of  brain. 

Mental  distinctions  very  great :  speech  ;  memory  ; 
abstract  thought  ;  use  of  tools  ;  ability  to  make  rec- 
ords ;  to  look  before  and  after  ;  ethical  sense  ;  recog- 
nition of  property  rights  ;  perfection  of  cooperation. 
Evolution  of  power  of  choice  ;  how  and  why  this  has 
arisen.  All  these  relative  ;  increasing  with  increasing 
civilization  ;  possessed  in  slight  degree  by  apes  ;  in 
not  much  greater  degree  by  primitive  man. 

Primary  division  among  primates  into  Lemurs,  the 
original  stock;  Old  World  monkeys  with  narrow  noses; 


97 

New  World  monkeys  with  broad  noses.      Man's  place 
with  the  Old  "World  forms. 

Darwin's  work  led  to  conclusion  :  If  animal  and 
plant  species  arise  through  natural  laws,  if  homology 
is  the  stamp  of  heredity,  then  man  must  have  arisen 
through  natural  law.  The  homology  of  man  with  apes 
indicates  common  heredity.  Hence  man  must  have 
come  from  some  Simian  stock,  some  forms  likewise  an- 
cestors of  apes.  Ancestoral  man  arboreal,  hairy,  with 
long  arms  and  pointed  ears  ;  probably  also  nomadic. 

1.  Theory  of  wholly  independent  origin  of  man.     No 
standing  in  science.    "  Resolved,  That  man  was  created 
by  an  instantaneous  process  without  previous  animal 
parentage." 

2.  Assumption  of  descent  of  man  from  anthropoid 
apes,  because  these  seem  nearest  man. 

3.  Argument  from   teeth  that  man  a  separate  off- 
shoot from  lemurs. 

4.  Theory  of  Saltatory  Evolution  of  man  (analogy 
to  Ancon  sheep).     Absence  of  facts  for  or  against. 

5.  Theory  of  extra-natural  origin  of  human  mind 
(Wallace).     Objections  :  Unnecessary  reference  to  un- 
known  causes.     Not  line  of  least  logical   resistance. 
Lack  of  recognition  of  epoch-making  forces.    Analogies 
from  human  history. 

6.  Man  a  nomadic  ape.     His  powers  the  result  of 
his  cosmopolitan  qualities.     Narrowing  effect  of  life  in 
tree-tops. 

•    7.  Man  an  ape  of  prolonged  infancy. 

Primitive  man  a  creature  of  large  energy  and  large 
possibilities.  Value  of  latent  power  as  against  used-up 
possibilities. 


98  MAN'S  PLACE  IN  NATURE. 

Difficulties  in  the  study  of  the  origin  of  man. 

Barbarous  man  writes  no  history.  Leaves  no  record 
but  tools  of  stone  or  bone.  Iron  rusts  ;  bones  decay  ; 
wood  decays.  Fossils  only  formed  by  burying  of  hard- 
parts  from  air,  in  quicksands,  caves,  and  coral  reefs. 

Men  and  monkeys  have  almost  no  fossil  remains. 

Less  primitive  man  destroys  all  remains  of  more 
primitive  man.  Love  for  antiquity  a  modern  matter. 

Oldest  men  recorded  in  history  scarcely  nearer  the 
beginning  of  man  than  we  are  now.  The  idea  of  his- 
tory implies  civilization. 

Study  of  origin  of  man  conducted  at  great  disad- 
vantage ;  hence  not  pursued  as  more  fruitful  studies 
are.  Embryology  has  yielded  more  light  than  archae- 
ology ;  indirect  than  direct  methods. 

Search  for  missing  links.  What  is  a  missing  link  ? 
say  between  horse  and  cow  ?  Not  a  horse-cow,  but  a 
generalized  animal,  like  an  embryo  horse  or  cow  in 
structure,  and  capable  of  developing  into  either  by 
specialized  influences.  So  missing  link  not  a  man-ape, 
or  ape-man,  but  a  generalized  creature,  in  internal 
structure  like  a  new-born  child.  The  primitive  race, 
child-like  race.  The  apes  dwarfed  old  men  who  have 
developed  in  another  and  narrower  fashion. 

Earliest  human  remains ;  some  ape-like,  but  not 
more  so  than  Australians  and  some  negroes.  Blue- 
gum  negroes,  blue-gum  apes.  Old-time  folks. 

Speech  of  apes.  Their  intelligence,  mischief,  and 
cruelty  ;  their  tenderness  and  unconventionally.  The 
story  of  Bimi  (Kipling). 

Growth  of  human  qualities:  (1)  Migration;  (2)  use 
of  tools  ;  (3)  speech  ;  (4)  record  ;  (5)  property  rights  ; 


(6)  memory;  (7)  abstract  thought;  (8)  interest  in 
future  conditions  ;  long-headed  selfishness  ;  (9)  ability 
to  discard  present  for  future  pleasures  ;  (10)  ethics. 

Non-automatic  powers  involved  in  the  power  of 
choice.  Self-consciousness  and  intellectual  processes 
generally  a  result  of  natural  selection  in  complex  en- 
vironment. Primitive  man  must  think  or  die  ;  auto- 
matic nerve  connections  insufficient.  Once  started  on 
intellectual  growth  ;  this  most  valued  result  of  nat- 
ural selection.  Its  efficiency  increased  by  mutual  aid. 
Growth  of  civilization. 

1.  Man  has  assumed  an  anthropocentric  universe, 
built  by  an  anthropomorphic  force.     For  we  know  no 
other  names  for  the  infinite  intellect  and  will  than 
those  drawn  from  human  experience. 

2.  Man  has  assumed  a  separate  origin  for  himself. 

3.  That  all  things  on  earth  must  justify  their  ex- 
istence by  helping  him  ;  what  he  cannot  use  he  will 
destroy. 

4.  That  forces  of  Nature  do  and  should  make  an  ex- 
ception in  his  case.     Spirit  of  evil  in  them  when  they 
do  not. 

One  good  result  of  civilization  that  it  enables  "to 
endure  the  agonies  of  suspended  judgment." 

"  A  sacred  kinship  I  would  not  forego 
Binds  me  to  all  that  breathes  ; 

I  am  the  child  of  earth  and  air  and  sea. 
My  lullaby  by  hoarse  silurian  storms 
Was  chanted.     Through  endless  changing  forms 
Of  plant  and  bird  and  beast  unceasingly 
The  toiling  ages  wrought  to  fashion  me. 


100  MAN'S  PLACE  IN  NATURE. 

"  Lo  !  these  large  ancestors  have  left  a  trace 
Of  their  strong  souls  in  mine  ; 
I  grow  and  blossom  as  the  tree 

And  ever  feel  deep-delving  earthy  roots 
Binding  me  closer  to  the  common  clay. 

Yet  with  its  airy  impulse  upward  shoots 
My  soul  into  the  realms  of  light  and  day." 

—  Hjalmar  Hjorth  Boyesen. 


LECTURE    XLII. 

EVOLUTION  IN  SOCIAL  INSTITUTIONS. —  PRINCIPLES. 
Prof.  George  E.  Howard. 

I.   The  Nature  and  Scope  of  Social  Institutions. 

1.  What  is  comprehended  by  the  term  institutions. 
Society  as  a  whole  is  an  organism.     (B)  Society 

is  a  complex  of  many  individual  organisms. 

2.  Institutions  are  the  solid  framework  of  history. 
They  are  the  residuum  or  resultant  of  social  integra- 
tion and  disintegration  —  of  social  struggle. 

3.  Institutions  are  living  organisms.     (A)  They  are 
the  outward  expression  of  the  thoughts  and  habits  of 
men.     (B)  They  bear  a  striking  resemblance  to  animal 
organisms,     (a)  An  institution  exists  in  the  concrete 
and  in  the  abstract,     (b)  Analogy  between  society  re- 
garded as  a  complex  of  individual  organisms,  and  an 
animal  structure  regarded  as  composed  of  living,  sepa- 
rately  organized   cells    (See    Haeckel,    "Evolution    of 
Man,"    Vol.   I.  ;   Janes,   in    Popular  Science    Monthly, 
June,  1892).     (C)  May  we  regard  society  as  having  a 
sensorium  ?    (See  Spencer's  "  Justice  " :  Part  IV.,  "  Data 
of  Ethics"). 

77.  Institutional  History  is  a  Biological  (Natural) 
Science. 

1.  Significance  of  the  present  use  of  the  terms  "in- 
ductive," "  comparative,"  and  "  historical "  :  history 
has  become  biological,  while  natural  science  has  be- 


102  EVOLUTION    IN    SOCIAL    INSTITUTIONS. 

come    historical.        (Of.    Fiske,    in    Popular    Science 
Monthly,  September,  1891). 

2.  Origin  of  the  doctrine  of  Evolution  as  applied  to 
institutions.     (^4)  Influence  of  Aristotle  ("Politics," 
I.,  2  :  Jowett,  I.,  p.  2  ff.)  ;  Plato  (  u  Laws,"  III.,  680  ff.  : 
Jowett,  II.,   p.  209).      (B)  Influence  of  George  L.   v. 
Maurer,  Freeman,  and  others. 

3.  Institutional  history  has  a  scientific  method.     (A) 
The  historical  laboratory.     (B)  The  establishment  of 
the  first  historical  laboratory  (Seminarium,  Exercita- 
tiones  Historicae)  by  Leopold  von  Ranke,  in  Berlin, 
Ca.,  1830.     (C)  History  has  an  efficient  scientific  no- 
menclature, whose   terms  are  historically  significant. 
Examples. 


LECTURE   XLIII. 

EVOLUTION    OF    SOCIAL    INSTITUTIONS.  —  APPLICATIONS 
AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Prof.  George  E.  Howard. 

I.   Illustration   of  the   Biological   Basis  of  Historical 
Evolution. 

1.  Institutional  history  is  largely  the  history  of  con- 
duct. 

2.  Conduct  is  an  evolution,     (a)   Natural  selection 
and  crime  (Morse,  in  Popular  Science  Monthly,  August, 
1892).     (h)   Natural  selection  and  moral  regeneration. 

3.  Bearing  of  the  doctrines  on  the  future  of  society 
and  the  law. 

II.  Institutional    Evolution    Presents  the  Phenomena 
of  Organic  Evolution. 

1.  Decay  and  revival  of  organs  and  functions. 

2.  Continuity    and    differentiation    in    variety    and 
species. 

3.  Survival  or  fossilization. 

III.  Examples  of  Survivals. 

1.  Hearth  or  ancestor-worship. 

2.  Marriage  by  capture. 

3.  Marriage  by  purchase. 

4.  The  blood-feud  and  self-help,     (a)  English  peine 
forte  et  dur  and  distress;  the  Roman  pignoris  capio ; 
and  the  Hindoo  "Fasting  at  the  Door."     (b)  Primi- 


104  EVOLUTION    IN    SOCIAL    INSTITUTIONS. 

tive   measure  of  punishment   for  crime ;    symbols  of 
violence  in  judicial  process,  etc. 

IV.  Examples  of  Continuity,  Differentiation,  and  De- 
cay. 

1.  The  English  lord  lieutenant  and  the  petty  con- 
stable. 

2.  Six  ages  in  the  history  of  the  township. 

3.  Differentiation  of  the  English  courts  and  councils 
from  the  Curia  Regis. 

V.  Biological  and  Institutional  Problem*   Compared. 

1.  The  difficulty,  often,  in  reaching  satisfactory  con- 
clusions on  the  most  important  questions. 

2.  Compare:   (a)  The  theory  of  the  Patriarchal  fam- 
ily vs.  that  of  the  Horde,  as  the  embryo  of  social  or- 
ganism ;  with  (b)  the  theories  of  Lamarck  and  Darwin 
vs.  that  of  Weismann,  as  to  the  transmission  of  ac- 
quired traits. 


LECTURE   XLIV. 
HISTORY  OF  EVOLUTION. 

As  a  philosophical  suggestion,  very  old.  Shrewd 
guesses  and  unverified  suggestions  comparatively  val- 
ueless. Lucretius. 

Linnaeus,  "  Systema  Naturae,"  1758  ;  a  system  of  sci- 
entific nomenclature  enabling  the  keeping  of  perfect 
records.  "As  many  species  now  as  there  were  dif- 
ferent forms  created  in  the  Beginning  by  the  Supreme 
Being." 

Lamarck,  "Philosophic  Zoologique,"  1800.  Devel- 
opment of  species  through  functional  use  and  disuse, 
and  the  slow  willing  of  animals. 

St.  Hilaire,  1815.      Goethe  :  "  sanest  of  men." 

Cuvier.  "  Regne  Animal,"  1817.  Origin  of  species  an 
insoluble  problem.  As  many  species  now  as  had  come 
into  being  with  the  present  zoological  era.  Lamarck 
overborne  by  the  weight  of  authority  of  the  father  of 
studies  in  homology. 

Robert  Chambers  :  the  "  Vestiges  of  Creation." 

Agassiz :  "Essay  on  Classification";  species  the 
thoughts  of  God. 

Darwin  :  "Origin  of  Species,"  1859. 

Origin  of  species  :  the  mystery  of  mysteries.  Life 
problem  of  Darwin.  Devoted  himself  for  twenty-five 
years  to  collection  of  all  facts  which  bear  upon  it.  As- 
sumption, that  as  the  appearance  of  species  is  a  fact 


106  HISTORY    OF    EVOLUTION. 

of  Nature,  it  must  be  brought  about  by  natural  laws. 
Science  must  assume  that  the  origin  of  man  or  the 
growth  of  the  state  are  as  much  natural  processes  as 
the  sprouting  of  corn  or  the  formation  of  a  snow-bank. 

All  natural  phenomena  produced  by  natural  laws, 
unvarying  and  unchanging.  Can  be  no  respecters  of 
persons.  Science  can  recognize  none  other  than  its 
own  methods.  Cannot  recognize  intuition  as  a  source 
of  objective  truth.  Luther's  remark.  Nor  can  it  recog- 
nize logic  alone.  Helmholtz's  remark.  Nor  can  it 
recognize  authority. 

Relation  of  Darwin  to  Lyell's  work.  All  changes 
in  the  earth's  crust  produced  by  the  slow  action  of  ex- 
isting causes.  Valleys  not  made  by  the  hammer  of 
Thor,  but  by  the  slow  action  of  water,  or  the  grinding 
force  of  ice,  and  the  destruction  due  to  frost.  Ice,  frost, 
and  falling  water  stronger  giants  than  Thor,  as  the 
Norse  mythology  tells  us.  See  Carlyle's  "  Hero  Wor- 
ship." 

Darwinism.  Uniformitarianism  applied  to  geology. 
The  strong  gods  in  the  changes  in  life  are  the  factors 
in  Organic  Evolution.  Of  these  Darwin  brought  to 
light  the  hidden  force  of  Natural  Selection.  Heredity ; 
Individuality;  Force  of  Environment;  Natural  Selec- 
tion; Self-Activity ;  Mutual  Help  ;  Segregation  in  Isola- 
tion. These,  some  of  the  forces  ;  all  sometimes  spoken 
of  as  gods,  or  fates,  or  giants.  Because  human  growth, 
as  all  other  growth,  is  hemmed  in  by  them,  and  shows 
itself  in  reaction  from  them. 

Place  in  science  of  the  Origin  of  Species. 

Alfred  Russell  Wallace,  "  On  the  Tendency  of  Varie- 
ties to  Depart  Indefinitely  from  the  Original  Type." 


HISTORY    OF    EVOLUTION.  107 

Relation  of  Darwin's  work  to  Lyell,  Huxley,  Hooker, 
and  Gray.  The  younger  and  more  observant  natur- 
alists would  find  in  this  work  confirmation  of  their 
own  observations. 

Thomas  Malthus  (1795,  "Principles  of  Popula- 
tion"), and  Charles  Lyell  ("Principles  of  Geology")  ; 
true  precursors  of  Darwin. 

Darwin's  other  works,  "  Descent  of  Man,"  etc. 

Darwin's  life  and  methods  of  study. 

Visit  to  Down.  "  He  lies  in  Westminster  Abbey  by 
the  side  of  Isaac  Newton,  one  of  the  many  noble  men 
who  made  his  own  life  possible.  Among  all  who  have 
written  or  spoken  since  his  death,  by  none  has  unkind 
word  been  said.  He  was  a  gentle,  patient,  reverent 
spirit,  and  by  his  life  has  not  only  science,  but  our  con- 
ception of  Christianity,  been  advanced  and  ennobled." 

"  I  believe  that  I  have  acted  rightly  in  steadily  fol- 
lowing and  devoting  my  life  to  science.  I  feel  no  re- 
morse from  having  committed  any  great  sin,  but  I 
have  often  and  often  regretted  that  I  have  not  done 
more  direct  good  to  my  fellow  creatures." —  Darwin. 

"  It  comes  out  very  clearly  that  Darwin  did  not  re- 
joice over  the  success  of  his  own  theory  of  Evolution, 
that  modification  is  due  mainly  to  natural  selection. 
On  the  contrary,  he  felt  strongly  that  the  really  im- 
portant point  was  that,  the  doctrine  of  descent  should 
be  accepted." — Francis  Darwin. 

The  storm  provoked  by  the  "Origin  of  Species." 
"  Extinguished  theologians  about  the  cradle  of  every 
infant  science,  like  the  strangled  snakes  beside  that 
of  the  infant  Hercules." 

Agassiz  said  :     Three  stages  in  the  attitude  of  con- 


108  HISTORY    OF   EVOLUTION. 

servatism  toward  any  new  truth  :  (1)  It  contradicts 
the  Bible  ;  (2)  nothing  new  in  it ;  (3)  we  have  always 
believed  it. 

John  Wesley, "  Survey  of  the  Wisdom  of  God,"  1775  : 
*'  In  process  of  time  many  important  discoveries  have 
been  made,  which  have  been  gradually  assented  to  as 
prejudice  could  give  place ;  allowing  that  it  takes  a 
century  to  make  a  discovery,  it  requires  another  cen- 
tury to  remove  a  prejudice.  The  modest  efforts  of 
reason  are  too  feeble  to  shake  the  foundation  of  error. 

"  The  same  general  design  comprises  all  parts  of  the 

terrestrial  creation.     .     .     .     Various  productions  of 

the  earth  are  not  different  strokes  of  the  same  design 

.     only  so  many  various  points  of  a  single  stroke. 

"  All  is  metamorphosis.  Forms  are  continually 
changing.  The  quantity  of  matter  alone  is  unvari- 
able.  The  same  substance  passes  successively  into  the 
three  kingdoms.  The  same  composition  becomes  by 
turn  a  mineral,  plant,  insect,  reptile,  fish,  bird,  quad- 
ruped, man.  .  .  .  The  gradation  that  subsists 
between  all  the  productions  of  Nature.  'Links  that 
unite.'  .  .  .  The  ape  is  this  rough  draft  of  man. 
This  rude  sketch  an  imperfect  representation,  which, 
nevertheless,  bears  a  resemblance  to  him,  and  is  the 
last  creature  that  serves  to  display  the  admirable 
progression  of  the  works  of  God.  Mankind  have  their 
gradations  as  well  as  the  other  productions  of  our 
globe.  There  are  a  prodigious  number  of  continued 
links  between  the  most  perfect  man  and  the  ape." — 
John  Wesley. 

"  The  progress  of  science  must  be  slow ;  see  what 
a  turmoil  a  little  advance  can  make." — Benjamin 
Franklin. 


;i.  W.  W.  LOCAL,  174 

569   -  7TH   S 

OAKLAND 


LECTURE   XLV. 
AFTER  DARWIN. 

Huxley  :  "  Extinguished  theologians  lie  about  the 
cradle  of  every  infant  science  as  the  strangled  snakes 
beside  that  of  the  infant  Hercules."  "There  can  be 
no  alleviation  of  the  sufferings  of  mankind  except 
veracity  of  thought  and  action,  and  the  resolute  facing 
of  the  world  as  it  is." 

Gray.  Hooker.  Lyell.  Herbert  Spencer  and  the 
"  Philosophy  of  Evolution."  Haeckel,  John  Fiske, 
Bagehot,  Romanes,  Lloyd  Morgan  —  expositors  of 
Evolution.  Francis  Galton  and  "  Inheritance."  Ray 
Lankester  and  "  Degradation."  Boveri,  Maupas. 
Hertwig,  Brooks,  Wilson  —  workers  in  Embryology. 
August  Weismann,  "  Theory  of  Heredity."  Cope, 
Hyatt,  Osborne  —  defenders  of  Neo-Lamarckism  in 
America.  Lester  F.  Ward,  "  Pyschic  Factors  in  Evo- 
lution." Le  Conte,  Drummond,  Fiske,  Schurman  — 
reconcilers  of  Religion  with  Science.  Huxley,  Haeckel. 
etc. —  the  unreconciled.  Andrew  D.  White,  "War- 
fare of  Science."  "  Religion  and  science  must  each 
run  its  own  course,  and  I  am  not  responsible  if  the 
meeting  point  be  far  away." — Darwin. 

A  conflict  of  the  immortals  ;  Religion  always  de^ 
feated  in  the  struggle ;  always  arises  strengthened 
after  each  defeat.  No  need  of  premature  reconciliation. 


LECTURE   XLVI. 

SPENCER'S  FORMULA  OF  EVOLUTION. 

Prof.   William  H.  Hudson. 

Scientific  treatment  and  philosophic  treatment  of 
Evolution  to  be  kept  distinct.  The  Synthetic  Phil- 
osophy as  the  philosophy  of  Evolution.  Meaning  of 
this  statement. 

Evolution,  what  is  it  ?  Vague  and  shifting  signifi- 
cance of  the  word  in  current  use.  Metaphysical  im- 
plications. Evolution  and  Progress.  What  do  we 
mean  by  "  high  "  and  "  low  "  in  organization  ? 

Starting  point  of  Spencer's  study  of  Evolution  on 
its  philosophical  side.  Line  of  approach,  and  its  con- 
sequences. "Social  Statics"  (1850),  and  the  doctrine 
of  individuation. 

German  speculation  on  the  development  of  the  in- 
dividual organism.  Von  Baer's  law  :  development  of 
organism  a  change  from  homogeneity  to  heterogeneity 
of  structure  and  function  ("  Entwickelungsgeschichte," 
1829).  Spencer  expands  this  into  the  law  of  all  prog- 
ress (" Progress,  Its  Law  and  Cause,"  1857;  "First 
Principles,"  first  ed.,  1862). 

Does  this  sum  up  the  whole  matter  ?  No.  There 
are  changes  from  relative  homogeneity  to  relative 
heterogeneity  which  are  obviously  not  changes  in  the 
line  of  Evolution.  All  Evolution  implies  increase  of 
complexity,  but  all  increase  of  complexity  is  not  Evo- 


SPENCER'S  FORMULA  OF  EVOLUTION.  Ill 

lution.  What  is  the  difference  ?  Where  shall  we  find 
a  law  to  condition  this  of  increasing  differentiation  ? 

Spencer's  return  to  the  doctrine  of  individuation, 
expounded  in  "  Social  Statics."  Individuation  must 
involve  unification.  Reinstatement  of  the  doctrine  of 
unification  in  Spencer's  thought.  Evolution  :  increase 
of  heterogeneity  along  with  increase  in  unification. 
Change  towards  complexity  is  change  in  the  line  of 
Evolution  only  where  increase  of  complexity  does  not 
break  up  or  jeopardize  the  organic  unity  of  the  aggre- 
gate. In  Evolution  increasing  specialization  of  parts 
must  be  accompanied  by  increasing  mutual  depend- 
ence of  parts  in  a  coherent  whole. 

Full  formula  thus  reached  :  Evolution  is  a  change 
from  an  indefinite,  incoherent  homogeneity,  to  a  defi- 
nite, coherent  heterogeneity,  through  successive  dif- 
ferentiations and  integrations. 

Criticism  of  this  formula.  Applications  of  it  to 
the  phenomena  of  biology,  psychology,  sociology,  and 
ethics. 


LECTURE   XLVII. 
PRESENT  BATTLE-GROUNDS  OF  EVOLUTION. 

Discussion  of  Disputed  Questions  in  Evolution  from 
the  Standpoint  of  Science. 

Science  is  knowledge  set  in  order.  Disputed  ques- 
tions are  those  (1)  in  which  facts  are  not  sufficient 
for  a  decision,  and  (2)  in  which  search  for  such  facts 
may  hope  to  be  rewarded.  Science  does  not  concern 
itself  with  insoluble  problems,  nor  does  it  dispute  over 
solved  problems.  The  best  men  in  science  work  in 
fruitful  fields.  A  theory  in  science  may  be  valuable 
as  indicating  a  direction  for  work,  giving  opportunity 
for  decisive  tests.  Scientific  ,use  of  the  imagination. 
A  theory,  no  matter  how  plausible,  is  valueless  for 
any  other  purpose.  Science  cares  nothing  for  guesses, 
even  though  marvelously  shrewd.  The  logic  of  science 
is  a  deduction  from  facts.  It  is  impersonal,  unemo- 
tional, and  might  be  made  by  an  automatic  logic 
machine.  "  Nature  abhors  a  generalization."  Science 
can  recognize  only  those  generalizations  which  are  so 
supported  by  facts  that  the  conclusions  are  evident  to 
all  who  know  the  facts.  A  hypothesis  valueless  if 
nothing  can  be  said  against  it ;  that  is,  if  incapable  of 
verification.  Hence  science  differs  from  speculative 
philosophy.  Helmholtz  says  that  the  latter  deals 
with  such  "schlechtes  Stoff"  that  its  conclusions  have 
no  value.  Hence  such  discussions  as  monism  versus 


PRESENT    BATTLE-GROUNDS    OF    EVOLUTION.          113 

dualism  not  a  part  of  science.  Are  mind  and  matter 
one  ?  and  if  so,  which  one  ?  What  is  the  origin  and 
character  of  the  soul  ?  These  questions  belong  to  Phil- 
osophy. 

Evolutionists  have  been  often  divided  into  theistic, 
agnostic,  and  atheistic.  No  pertinence  in  such  a  di- 
vision as  applied  to  Evolution.  Evolution  deals  not 
with  opinions  but  with  questions  of  scientific  truth. 
Its  propositions  true  or  false,  whatever  the  observer's 
philosophical  or  religious  belief.  As  well  speak  of  a 
theistic  multiplication  table,  agnostic  electricity,  or 
atheistic  chemical  affinity,  as  to  apply  these  terms  to 
Evolution.  Science  has  nothing  to  do  with  pre-de- 
termined  conclusions. 

Ground  disputed  between  religion  and  science ;  one 
or  the  other  trespassing.  Religion  gains  every  time  it 
is  driven  off  from  scientific  ground.  "  Plus  on  lui  6te  : 
plus  il  est  grand." 

Some  Unsettled  Questions  Not  Discussed  by  Science  : 

I.  Origin  of  life.     Where,  when,  how  ?     No  data  at- 
tainable. 

II.  Spontaneous  generation.  No  affirmative  evidence. 
Only  theoretical  negative  evidence.     No  means  of  rec- 
ognizing life  fresh  from  the  mint  of  creation,  even  if 
existing. 

Questions  Discussed,  but  Without  Hope  of  More  Per- 
fect Answer  : 

I.  Significance  of  pain. 

II.  Warrant  of  ethics.     Is  happiness,  or  growth,  or 
better  adaptation,  the  end  of  right-doing  ? 

III.  Indifference  of  Nature. 

IV.  Destiny  of  man. 


114     PRESENT  BATTLE  GROUNDS  OF  EVOLUTION. 

Questions  Subject  to  Investigation,  With  Hope  of  Re- 
sults : 

I.  The  inheritance  of  acquired  characters.  (The 
most  important  present  field  of  discussion.) 

1.  McFarland's  illustration  of  the  owl  and  the  egg  : 
(a)  Was  the  owl  first,  the  egg  a  concentration  of  its 
qualities  in  a  specialized  cell  to  reproduce  the  owl  ? 

—  Spencer,  Lamarck,  (b)  Was  the  egg  first,  the  owl  a 
bi-product  of  its  development,  and  the  new  egg  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  old  one,  modified  by  amphimixis,  but 
not  affected  by  the  efforts  and  experience  of  the  owl  ? 

-  Weismann.  (c)  Are  the  owl's  acquisitions  —  those 
gains  and  losses  in  his  hereditary  equipment  which 
are  results  of  his  activity  or  idleness  —  transmitted  as 
distinctive  influences  to  the  owlets  ?  (d)  Does  hered- 
ity repeat  only  the  original  material  carried  in  the 
original  egg  nucleus  ? 

2.  Are  the  ghosts  of  Ibsen  real  ? 

3.  Are  the  laws  of  heredity  indifferent  as  to  whether 
qualities  are  latent  or  developed  ? 

4.  Is  instinct  inherited  habit  ? 

5.  Is    instinct    a    selection    of   desirable   tendencies 
among  possible  ones  ? 

6.  Is  civilization  the  inheritance  of  past  success  ? 

7.  Is  civilization   the  "  sum   of  those  contrivances 
which  enable  man  to  advance  independent  of  hered- 
ity"? 

"Considering  the  width  and  depth  of  the  effects 
which  the  acceptance  of  one  or  another  of  these  hy- 
potheses must  have  on  our  views  of  life,  the  question, 
Which  of  them  is  true  ?  demands,  beyond  all  other 
questions  whatever,  the  attention  of  scientific  men." — 
Herbert  Spencer. 


PRESENT    BATTLE-GROUNDS    OF    EVOLUTION.  115 

II.  Sexual    selection.     Does   the  male  grow   strong 
and  brilliant  of  plumage  because  the  female  prefers 
strength,  brightness,  activity,  and  song  ?     Or  are  these 
qualities  simply  co-ordinated  with  the  strength  which 
enables  the  favored  male  to  overcome  those  less  fav- 
ored ? 

III.  Origin  of  the  fittest.     Law  of  acceleration  and 
retardation.     Effect  of  amphimixis.     Unsolved  prob- 
lems. 

IV.  Origin  of  man. 

1.  Descent  from  anthropoid  apes  (form). 

2.  Descent  from  Lemurs  (teeth). 

3.  Saltatory  evolution. 

4.  Extra-natural  origin  of  human  mind. —  Wallace. 

5.  Man  a  nomadic  ape. 

6.  Knowledge  of  good  and  evil. 

7.  Speech. 

8.  Infancy. 

9.  Tools  and  fire. 

10.  Tribal  relations. 

V.  Origin  of  ethics.     Inheritance  of  experience,  or 
natural    selection,    or    education.     Tribal   ethics   ex- 
panded to  general  ethics. 

VI.  Origin  of  the  various    groups  of  animals  and 
plants.     An  immense  field  of  research,  involving  all 
forms  of  biological  knowledge. 

VII.  Application  of  laws  of  Evolution  to  man. 
1.  Can  we  assist  Evolution  ? 

"  When  Nature  falters,  fain  would  Zeal 
Grasp  the  felloes  of  her  wheel, 
And  grasping,  give  the  orb  another  whirl." 


116          PRESENT    BATTLE-GROUNDS    OF    EVOLUTION. 

2.  Can    we    improve    mankind    by    improving    his 
hereditary  qualities  ? 

3.  Can   we  help   mankind   by  improving   environ- 
ment ? 

4.  Can  we  help  mankind  by  substitution  of  coopera- 
tion for  competition  ?     If  so,  how  ?     By  government  ? 
By  social  changes  ?     By  individual  effort  ?     How  keep 
from  destroying  self-activity  ? 

5.  Are  "all  philanthropic  undertakings  mischievous 
meddling  with    the  course  of  Nature"?     "The  final 
result  of  saving  people  from  their  folly  would  be  to 
fill  the  earth  with  fools." —  Spencer.     "  He  who  falls 
in  the  press  has  only  to  lie  there  and   be  trampled 
broad. "J—  Carlyle.     Hence  men  must  be  better  before 
they  can  be  happier. 

6.  Why  not  then  be  brutal  ?     Why  not  destroy  in- 
efficiency ?     Because  brutality  leads  to  barbarism  and 
away  from  civilization.     Practical  results  of  it. 

7.  Why  not    let    Nature   go  on;    let  the   diseased, 
weak,   and    profligate   exterminate   themselves  ?     Be- 
cause "  gangrene   is   not  a  desirable   caustic.     Social 
cancers  infect  more  than  they  eat  away." —  Warner. 

New  investigations  bring  new  questions.  The  un- 
solved questions  will  never  be  wanting,  but  they  will 
center  around  those  investigations  which  are  fruitful 
in  results. 


LECTURE   XLVIII. 

THE  PHILOSOPHY  OF  DESPAIR. 

Prof.  Edward  A.  Ross. 

Heredity. —  The  fable  of  a  free  will.  Is  each  the 
arbiter  of  his  own  destiny  ?  Job.  Nature's  supposed 
deference  to  human  desert.  The  facts  of  heredity. 
Whether  by  what  our  fathers  were,  or  by  what  they 
did,  we  still  are  made;  fathers'  weaknesses  nearly  as 
bad  as  fathers'  sins.  "  Allah  has  bound  every  man's 
fate  about  his  neck."  Punishing  to  the  third  and 
fourth  generations.  Nature's  justice  versus  poetic 
justice.  The  illusion  of  free  will.  The  initial  thrust 
into  life  ;  we  awake  on  a  slippery  incline,  and  can 
veer  but  little  to  the  right  or  left.  The  new  fatalism. 

Progress. —  Past  development  no  security  for  the 
future.  As  a  beggar  who  awakes  to  find  himself  on 
a  throne  surrounded  by  prostrate  courtiers  knows  not 
what  moment  he  will  become  their  sport,  so  we  know 
not  when  we  shall  find  the  current  of  Evolution 
against  us.  Adaptation  proves  no  kindly  design.  The 
cake  fits  its  pan  because  it  was  once  dough.  The 
glacier  and  its  bed. 

Conduct.—  The  dark  past  of  the  race  ;  struggle  and 
sorrow,  blood  and  tears.  The  Golgotha  of  Humanity 
traced  in  history.  The  struggle  for  existence  and  its 
awards.  The  fittest  not  always  the  righteous.  How 
the  ape  and  tiger  traits  live  on.  The  conflict  between 


118  THE    PHILOSOPHY    OF    DESPAIR. 

the  inherited  nature  and  the  acquired  ideal.  The 
burden  of  Adam's  sin.  The  new  Calvinism. 

Knowledge. —  Our  impotence  to  know.  The  math- 
ematical and  speculative  faculties  mere  by-products  ; 
no  guarantee  of  their  competence  to  reach  the  heart  of 
reality.  We  assist  the  senses  with  instruments,  but 
wherewith  shall  we  assist  the  reason,  when  it  falls 
short  ?  Faculties  suited  to  rude  practical  uses  have 
no  warrant  of  success  in  probing  the  nature  of  things. 
Can  we  etch  with  a  crowbar,  or  shear  silk  with  a 
ploughshare  ?  The  islet  on  the  dark  sea.  The  new 
scepticism. 

Happiness. —  The  origin  of  desire.  Function  versus 
feeling.  Nature's  bribery.  Is  the  satisfaction  of  de- 
sire the  path  to  happiness  ?  Schopenhauer's  argument. 
Man  the  sport  of  Nature.  Goaded  and  stung  by  de- 
sires across  the  stage  of  life.  Ennui.  Thirst  and 
surfeit.  No  net  gain  along  the  main  track.  Our 
throats  but  choked  with  dust.  The  ascetic  remedy. 
The  quenching  of  desire.  Release  from  wishing. 
Apatheia.  Nirvana.  The  new  asceticism. 

Decay. —  Why  not  a  leap  from  the  summit  ? 
Browning's  "  Cleon."  Knowledge  grows  while  the 
power  to  enjoy  declines.  Building  a  tower  that  settles 
under  our  feet.  The  impermanence  of  acquisitions. 
The  crumbling  of  personality  into  dotage  and  second 
childhood.  The  fire  dies  to  smouldering  coals.  The 
bright  river  loses  itself  in  sand. 

Death. —  Why  Azrael,  the  black  angel,  is  stationed 
at  the  exit  of  life.  The  warder  selected  by  the  struggle 
for  existence.  The  fear  of  death  and  the  will  to  live. 


LECTURE   XLIX. 

THE  WAY  OUT  OF  PESSIMISM. 

Prof.  Edward  A.  Ross. 

Heredity. —  Limited  transmissibility  of  taints  and 
defects  ;  all  our  ancestors  of  the  surviving  fittest.  Most 
weaklings  in  the  ancestral  stock  weeded  out  ere  we 
were  born.  Our  parents  must  have  reached  maturity, 
at  least.  New  aids  in  the  combat  with  inherited  evil 
—  diet,  climate,  hygiene,  literature,  personal  influence. 
How  heredity  cherishes  cheerfulness.  Not  the  children 
of  the  despairing  shall  inherit  the  earth.  The  world 
belongs  to  its  enjoyers.  Life  thrives  not  by  despair 
but  by  hope. 

Progress. —  How  supported  and  upborne  by  the 
cosmic  process.  No  serious  change  to  be  feared  ;  the 
environment  reliably  stable  ;  city  life  the  chief  new 
element.  The  rhythm  of  progress  not  discouraging. 

Conduct. —  The  elimination  of  the  cruel  and  treach- 
erous under  the  regime  of  order.  Since  the  dawn  of 
civilization  a  survival  of  the  comparatively  just  and 
righteous.  Certain  horrors  forever  done  with  —  canni- 
balism, human  sacrifices,  blood-thirst.  Self-extinction 
of  the  vicious  and  sensual.  Thexcrust  over  the  savage 
thickens  and  will  stand  more  strain.  Fewer  explos- 
ions of  the  seething  primitive  passions.  The  problem 
of  sin  not  what  it  once  was.  Good  men  no  longer 


120  THE    WAY    OUT    OF    PESSIMISM. 

seek  the  desert  or  the  monastery.  Righteousness 
getting  wrought  into  the  social  order. 

Knowledge. —  Evolution  positive  as  well  as  agnos- 
tic. Much  to  be  hoped  from  the  elite  intellects  of  the 
race.  Is  it  having  or  pursuing  that  delights  ?  Les- 
sing's  parable.  The  joy  of  intellectual  activity.  Ec- 
stacy  in  pure  mathematics — the  great  moments  of 
discovery.  The  reward  not  in  the  acquisitions  but  in 
the  acquiring. 

Happiness. —  Schopenhauer  wrong  ;  happiness 
takes  time.  Elation  that  lasts  for  hours.  Not  all 
pleasure  preceded  by  the  pain  of  desire  :  some  pleas- 
ures psychologically  cheap.  Health,  physical  vigor, 
buoyancy  and  elasticity,  waking  from  sleep.  Relation 
of  hunger  to  appetite.  Non-organic  pleasures  that  can 
not  be  recollected  —  music,  scenery.  Impressionism. 
Costless  joys.  Desire  may  be  brief  and  satisfaction 
long.  The  physiological  basis  of  enjoyment ;  renewal 
of  power  to  enjoy  ;  revival  of  interest.  Law  of  variety  ; 
need  of  versatility.  Law  of  moderation.  The  Greek 
ideal  of  temperance.  Pleasures  of  scenery,  art,  friend- 
ship, and  social  intercourse. 

Ennui  cured  not  by  fresh  desire  but  by  activity. 
The  natural  overflow  of  energy.  Ascetism  unscientific. 
The  new  basis  for  humanism.  Resignation  and  pas- 
sivity violate  the  fundamental  laws  of  happiness. 
Where  lies  the  zest  of  life  for  men  of  action  ?  Moun- 
tain-climbing, sight-seeing,  exploring,  pioneering, 
fighting,  reforming.  Stanley,  Phillips,  Roosevelt. 
Creative  joy.  Pleasure  hunting  versus  immersion  in 
congenial  work.  The  end  held  cheap.  Working  for 
others.  The  strong  helping  the  weak.  Health,  work, 


THE    WAY    OUT    OF    PESSIMISM.  121 

rest,  recreation,  variety,  are  the  positive  requisites  of 
a  happy  life. 

Decay. —  Old  age  in  savagery  and  in  civilization. 
The  beautifying  and  beatifying  of  age  by  filial  love. 
Not  all  decays  —  character  lives  when  acquisitions 
have  fled.  De  Quincy. 

Death. —  The  rounding  off  of  life.  The  ripened  apple 
ceases  to  cling  to  the  stem.  The  aged  unreluctant 
to  die.  "  Life  a  dream."  Decline  of  vitality.  Life's 
fever  cools.  Shrinking  from  death  ceases  as  the  surge 
of  life  energy  dies  away.  Serene  waiting.  Euthanasia. 

Summing  Up. —  Life  not  so  much  task  as  play. 
"  Go  to  work  "  really  means  "  Go  to  play."  Reaping 
joy  as  we  go  along.  Overearnestness  to  be  discour- 
aged. Life  not  to  be  taken  too  tragically.  Reserve  a 
portion  of  thyself. 


LECTURE    L. 

PHILOSOPHY  AND  SCIENCE. 

Philosophy : 

Philosophy  intuitional  ;  speculative. 

Philosophy  of  science  the  "evanescent  perspective 
in  which  the  facts  of  Nature  appear  to  man." 

All  science  involves  more  or  less  of  philosophy. 
Reality  of  external  things  ;  bridging  of  gaps  neces- 
sary in  all  induction.  Not  a  complete  series  of  facts 
ever  available. 

All  philosophy  necessarily  in  part  false.  All  phil- 
osophy ultimately  becomes  wholly  false  ;  as  the  truth 
becomes  verified  and  becomes  common  ground,  the  un- 
verified remnant  becomes  error.  The  philosophy  of 
the  past  opposed  to  science.  The  philosophy  of  science 
opposed  to  the  philosophy  of  the  past ;  but  it  ulti- 
mately becomes  opposed  to  science  as  well.  Mater- 
ialistic philosophy  arises  from  science,  but  becomes 
ultimately  opposed  to  science.  "  Star-dust,"  "  Atom- 
Seele,"  "  molecular-mind,"  and  the  like  as  mythical 
as  spooks  and  demons. 

The  conflict  between  science  and  old  philosophies 
not  allayed  by  any  new  efforts  of  speculation.  Only 
by  passing  on  to  new  grounds  of  truth.  Lessing's 
remark. 

Noblest  pleasure  of  human  mind  in  drawing  gener- 
alizations from  unwilling  Nature,  because  this  de- 
mands highest  effort. 


PHILOSOPHY    AND    SCIENCE.  123 

"  When  we  are  asked  why  we  study  that  which  we 
call  Nature  we  stammer  and  are  silent.  We  feel  as 
the  Creator  might  feel  if  asked  why  he  had  made  all 
these  things." — Persian  poet. 

Non- Resistance  of  Science  : 

"  Old  errors  do  not  die  because  they  are  refuted. 
They  fade  out  because  they  are  neglected." — Holmes. 

Good  work  constructive.  Huxley's  parable  of  the 
fence.  How  Darwin,  Lyell,  Gray,  Hooker,  treated  the 
fence.  How  Huxley  and  Haeckel  treated  it. 

Huxley  devoted  his  life  to  teaching  the  people  and 
to  breaking  down  "  Ecclesiasticism."  His  part  in  the 
"  warfare  of  science."  Has  this  brave  struggle  for 
scientific  freedom  made  science  more  free  ?  Was  it 
undertaken  for  this  purpose,  or  to  gratify  a  love  of 
fight  ?  Was  the  happiness  of  the  fighter  in  the  re- 
sults, or  in  the  effort?  Does  science  win,  or  does 
Huxley,  with  his  splendid  literary  style  and  trenchant 
pen  ? 

Futility  of  controversy.  May  be  good  fun,  but  in- 
effective in  advancing  truth.  Controversy  equalizes 
opponents.  Holmes's  remark.  We  form  a  ring  about 
a  fight  and  see  that  both  sides  have  fair  play.  The 
question  becomes,  Which  combatant  is  most  skillful  ? 
—  not,  Which  is  right?  In  fair  controversy  neither 
is  right. 

Truth  recognizes  neither  fair  play  nor  courtesy,  but 
smites  error  wherever  seen,  as  hunters  kill  rattle- 
snakes. Does  not  even  show  the  courtesy  of  a  rattle. 
Rather  destroys  error,  as  sunshine  destroys  the  frost 
or  the  mists  of  morning. 

Logic  of  persecution.     Its  failure  to  recognize  that 


124  PHILOSOPHY    AND    SCIENCE. 

no  man  possesses  truth.  Men  may  struggle  toward  it 
or  drift  away  from  it.  Those  who  would  limit  the 
human  mind  always  headed  the  wrong  way. 

It  was  written  long  ago,  "  Those  who  worship  Jove 
—  the  highest  God  —  may  be  content  to  despise  the 
lesser  gods  in  silence." 

As  for  the  devils,  the  very  least  of  the  gods  is  more 
potent  than  the  strongest  of  them. 


LECTURE    LI. 
RELIGION  AND  SCIENCE. 

Prof.   Wilbur   W.   Thoburn. 

Are  they  antagonistic  ? 

The  so-called  warfare  not  a  clash  of  facts,  but  a 
battle  between  definitions.  If  the  combatants  could 
cease  fighting  long  enough  to  understand  each  other 
they  might  end  by  agreement.  The  two-sided  shield. 

The  active,  working  men  rarely  stop  to  quarrel. 
Neither  side  ever  reaps  any  good  by  attacking  the 
other. 

"  Science  must  be  studied  by  its  own  means  and  to 
its  own  ends  by  men  trained  in  its  methods." —  White, 
"  Warfare,"  p.  146. 

Increase  Mather's  mastodon  bones  and  Huxley's 
theology. 

Some  definitions  and  limitations. 

Science  : 

Limited  only  by  knowledge.     Includes  theology. 

Not  unreliable  because  changeable. 

Usefulness  of  theories. 

Theology  Defined  : 

Not  religion  any  more  than  any  other  science  is  re- 
ligion. 

Mischief  arising  from  confusion  here. 

Two  kinds  of  theology  as  of  every  other  science  : 
(1)  stagnant;  (2)  progressive. 


126  RELIGION    AND    SCIENCE. 

No  conflict  between  dead  things.  Safety  and  rest 
only  in  constant  growth. 

Religion  Defined  : 

Confusion  of  ethics  and  religion.  Impossibility  of 
conflict  between  science  and  religion.  Place  of  the 
church. 

Limitations  of  the  intellect.  Office  and  use  of  faith 
in  the  pursuit  of  knowledge. 

The  Confusion  Concerning  Evolution : 

Not  a  science  ;  not  a  force  ;  not  a  religion  :  creates 
nothing,  and  is  not,  therefore,  a  substitute  for  God. 
Tells  how  the  Creator  worked  and  so  brings  us  into 
His  presence. 


LECTURE    L1I. 

THE  EVOLUTION  OF  RELIGION. 

Prof.    Wilbur   W.   Thoburn. 

Is  Evolution  an  ally  or  a  foe  ?  Misunderstood  Evo- 
lution regarded  as  a  foe. 

The  position  of  the  rational  theist  strengthened  by 
Evolution.  An  intelligible  plan  in  Nature  proves  kin- 
ship with  the  intelligence  back  of  the  plan. 

Is  the  religious  life  an  exception  to  the  laws  of  Evo- 
lution ?  The  ghosts  of  religion. 

Opposing  Views  of  Man  : 

1.  Struggling  to  regain  a  state  of  former  excellence 
now  lost. 

2.  Struggling    to    reach    perfection    and   excellence 
never   known,  and  hence   never  lost,  but  always  the 
goal  and  ideal  of  life. 

Our  idea  of  religion  and  of  Christ  determined  by  our 
view  of  man. 

These  two  views  not  so  widely  divergent  as  at  first 
appears. 

I.  Consideration  of  first  view.  The  Bible  evidences 
of  past  perfection.  Religions  of  savages  degraded. 
Prevalence  of  a  belief  in  ancient  excellence.  Chris- 
tianity a  hiatus. 

The  growth  of  the  tree  must  be  measured  not  at  the 
tips  of  the  branches  but  on  the  stem. 


128  THE    EVOLUTION    OF    RELIGION. 

II.  Consideration  of  second  view.  Evidences  of 
animalism.  Mankind  always  advancing.  Degraded 
races  have  dropped  out  of  the  process.  Christianity  a 
product  —  a  climax. 

The  Course  of  the  Evolution  of  Religion. —  Like  all 
history  its  beginnings  are  lost. 

Basis  for  conjecture. 

1.  Mankind  has  always  been  moving  in  the  direc- 
tion of  its  present  progress. 

2.  The  laws  of  human  action  have  always  been  the 
same. 

3.  The  object  of  existence  is  perfect  conformity  with 
the  environment. 

Man's  first  state  his  lowest.  His  back  toward  the 
animal. 

Relation  of  man's  knowledge  to  his  religion. 

I.  Naturism,  indistinct,  chaotic. 

Primitive  man  unconscious  of  his  superiority  over 
animals,  of  his  own  personality,  of  his  spirituality. 
Fear  made  the  first  gods,  and  they  were  simply  living 
beings. 

1.  Polydsemonistic  religions. 

2.  Therianthropic  polytheism. 

8.  Anthropomorphic  polytheism. 

Through  all  an  increasing  belief  in  the  soul,  an  in- 
crease in  the  value  of  a  man,  and  an  increase  in  the 
ethical  element  of  religion.  Lessons  from  childhood. 

II.   Ethical  religions. 

1.  National  —  development  of  henotheism.  Confu- 
cianism,, Brahminism,  Judaism. 


LECTURE   LIIL 

EVOLUTION  AND  THE  BIBLE. 

Prof.   Wilbur  W.  Thoburn. 

Reasons  for  this  discussion.  The  unique  place  of 
the  Bible  in  literature  and  life. 

The  question  not  whether  the  Bible  is  inspired,  but 
whether  it  grew  or  was  manufactured. 

I.  The  Bible  on  its  merits. 

More  powerful  in  competion  than  in  isolation.  The 
ghost  element  in  religion  and  in  the  Bible.  Wrongly 
used  as  a  substitute  for  thought.  Parasitism,  senti- 
mentalism  ;  impulse  and  action. 

More  valuable  as  a  teacher  than  as  an  authority. 
Skepticism  not  so  dangerous  as  sham  —  as  making 
believe  to  believe. 

The  apparent  conflict  between  the  Bible  and  Evolu- 
tion a  conflict  of  interpretations. 

The  Bible  and  Nature  equally  a  revelation  of  God. 

II.  Revelation.     The    unveiling    of    the   divine   in 
human     consciousness.     Misconceptions     concerning 
revelation.     Progressive  and  incomplete.     Relation  to 
knowledge.     Infallibility  and  inerrancy. 

III.  Evolution  of  the  Bible.     Tradition,  legend,  his- 
tory.    Its  symbolism  the  stumbling  block  of  theology 
and  the  foundation  of  religion. 

Not  facts  but  truths.     Not  a  scientific  treatise. 


130  EVOLUTION    AND    THE    BIBLE. 

The  first  chapters  of  Genesis. 

The  value  of  the  Bible  not  in  its  inerrancy  but  in 
the  fact  that  it  is  a  continuous,  progressive  revelation 
of  God  in  and  through  men. 

Evolutionists  have  more  faith  in  growth  than  in 
manufacture. 

1.  Literary  methods  of  the  Hebrews. 

2.  The  growth  of  the  books.     The  lives  of  the  pa- 
triarchs in  the  light  of  Evolution. 

3.  Polytheism  to  monotheism. 

Contrast  with  the  Chaldean  and  Phoenician  mythol- 
ogies. Evolution  of  love. 

It  is  the  Christ  in  the  Bible  which  makes  it  a  living 
book.  Life  is  its  only  interpreter. 

Conclusion. 


LECTURE    LIV. 
THE  FOOL-KILLER  AND  His  MISSION. 

The  fool-killer  —  a  metaphorical  term  for  self-in- 
flicted injury,  avoidable  through  greater  knowledge  or 
greater  faith  in  knowledge. 

When  we  enter  life  "  the  gate  of  gifts  is  closed."— 
Emerson.  Endowed  with  diverse  and  often  contra- 
dictory tendencies  to  be  blended  into  individuality  ; 
an  hereditary  measure  of  force  and  tendencies  toward 
certain  activities. 

Health  the  condition  when  functions  and  activities 
work  normally.  Pain  or  sickness,  signal  that  some- 
thing is  wrong.  Ringing  in  ears  a  sign  of  organs 
out  of  order,  as  ringing  of  bells  a  sign  of  warning  in 
machinery.  Neglected  signals  cease  in  time,  but  not 
injury  they  signify.  Faith  cures  largely  due  to  ela- 
tion in  which  signals  are  unnoticed.  "  Conversion  of 
active  into  dormant  hysteria."  Pains  Nature  has  not 
had  time  to  develop  ;  phases  of  environment  strange 
to  Nature's  man.  Man's  man  in  new,  hence  artificial, 
environment.  Comparison  of  bodily  health  to  inher- 
ited estate.  Money  grows  by  investment,  strength  by 
self-activity.  Hoarding  health  makes  long  life,  acci- 
dent aside.  Hoarding  money  makes  wealth,  accident 
aside.  "  Taking  out  of  the  meal  bag  and  never  put- 
ting in  soon  comes  to  the  bottom." —  Franklin.  Every 
waste  of  health  or  wealth  counts  in  final  reckoning. 


132  THE    FOOL-KILLER    AND    HIS    MISSION. 

Overdrafts  in  flush  times  versus  overdrafts  in  hard 
times. 

Not  always  wise  to  save  either  wealth,  or  strength, 
or  money.  Relative  value  of  different  aims.  Some 
things  better  than  long  life  to  some  people,  sometimes. 
But  not  often  so  to  average  man  ;  choice  must  be  made 
with  our  own  consent ;  not  left  to  the  fool-killer.  "  Ich 
hab's  gewagt  mit  Sinnen,  un  trag'  dessnoch  kein  Reu." 
-  Hut-ten. 

We  may  spend  our  lives  and  strength  knowingly 
for  others  (and  often  others  would  be  better  served 
had  we  saved  them).  We  may  be  victims  of  heredi- 
tary limitations.  We  may  be  victims  of  others,  or  of 
untoward  conditions. 

We  all  waste  life,  strength,  money  —  ignorantly  or 
uselessly  —  and  so  carelessly  or  deliberately  give  our- 
selves a  lower  place  in  the  struggle  for  existence  than 
otherwise  entitled  to. 

"  To  be  born  without  brains  not  in  itself  a  crime, 
but  in  a  competitive  civilization  must  be  punished  by 
hard  labor  for  life." 

Natural  selection  takes  no  account  of  native  nor  of 
hereditary  limitations.  To  be  born  without  financial 
sense  a  plea  allowed  neither  by  Nature  nor  our  cred- 
itors. Insanity  and  insolvency  pleas  not  accepted  in 
court  of  Nature. 

Natural  selection  distinguished  from  fool-killing. 
The  latter  takes  account  of  what  we  might  have  been  ; 
records  and  punishes  failure:  (1)  by  reduction  in 
length  of  life  ;  (2)  in  enjoyment  in  life  ;  (3)  in  power 
of  activity  ;  (4)  in  usefulness  of  life  ;  (5)  in  perfection 
of  development. 


THE   FOOL-KILLER    AND    HIS    MISSION.  133 

In  physical  matters.  Touch  of  wrong-doing  heavy 
on  little  children.  Nature  destroys  children  of  fools. 
Illustrations.  Touch  apparently  lighter  in  the  flush 
times  of  youth,  the  strength  of  early  manhood  ;  grows 
heavier  as  our  reserve  fund  fails,  till  finally  the  slight- 
est draft  will  put  out  the  light. 

The  fool-killer  and  the  student.  Sleep  :  Night  study. 
The  "  bright  moment  that  comes  after  midnight." 
Bryan's  words.  Eyesight :  Reading  on  the  cars  or  in 
poor  light.  Stimulants  :  Deceive  the  nervous  system. 
Every  trick  deranges  delicate  organisms.  Wine.  To- 
bacco. Coffee.  Tea.  Opium. 

Beautiful  fumes  of  burning  nerves.  Seeing  stars. 
The  great  calm  thinkers  from  Plato  to  Emerson  did 
not  write  at  midnight,  nor  over  absinthe  nor  strych- 
nine. 

Every  stimulus  that  hides  fatigue  comes  from  the 
fool-killer.  The  poetry  of  stimulants  ;  the  literature 
of  pessimism.  Tonics.  Nerve  foods.  Strychnine. 
Sleep  potions.  "Bromides  lead  to  Bromism,  the  loss 
of  mental  grip."  Strength  comes  through  action. 
Keep  blood  flowing.  "  Do  not  burn  candle  at  both 
ends  ;  not  too  much  at  either  end."  "  Pleasures  are 
like  poppies  spread." 

Youthful  folly.  Sowing  wild  oats  spoils  ground  for 
better  crops.  Fool-killer's  record  on  every  face.  No 
gallantry  in  Nature.  Woman,  perhaps,  should  be  un- 
touched by  the  fool-killer  ;  she  is  not.  What  woman's 
faces  show.  Penalties  for  tight-lacing,  idleness,  dissi- 
pation, foolish  eating  —  all  exacted. 

Keep  up  your  reserve  and  keep  your  functions  act- 
ive where  they  bring  in  good  interest.  Intellectual 


134  THE    FOOL-KILLER    AND    HIS    MISSION. 

culture  :  Weak  books  weaken  ;  never  read  to  kill  time 
—  killed  time  avenged  by  the  fool-killer.  Strong 
books  make  you  strong.  Responsibility  for  clear 
thinking  ;  must  precede  clear  acting.  Bad  men  never 
think  themselves  really  bad.  Moral  culture :  Keep 
up  your  reserves.  Don't  give  the  fool-killer  a  chance 
to  taunt  you  with  folly  or  crime  ;  if  you  do  he  will 
keep  at  it  all  your  life.  If  you  would  not  come  to 
shame  do  nothing  you  are  ashamed  of.  Have  noth- 
ing to  conceal  and  half  the  worries  of  life  are  saved. 
It  does  not  pay.  Evil  effects  of  self-pity  and  self-justi- 
fications. Evil  effect  of  having  done  what  one  knows 
others  would  disapprove.  Keep  your  temper.  Keep 
your  own  counsel.  Keep  it  so  that  no  harm  would 
come  if  all  the  world  suddenly  knew  your  inmost 
thoughts.  Bad  books,  bad  thoughts,  bad  deeds,  leave 
bad  marks.  These  pictures  stay  with  you  and  are 
not  pleasant  to  see  in  leisure  of  age.  "  Nature's  in- 
finite negative."  Thoreau's  remark  —  each  man  cre- 
ates his  own  atmosphere,  his  own  outlook.  Surround 
yourself  by  pure  air,  looking  out  on  clean  things  ; 
blue  sky,  green  grass,  and  lofty  mountains.  You  can 
not  afford  to  live,  unless  your  own  home  is  in  Utopia. 
From  that  abode  you  can  safely  venture  into  Erebus 
even,  if  some  one  is  helped  thereby.  But  do  not  live  in 
Erebus  because  the  society  is  congenial.  "When  you 
feel  inclined  to  become  a  rascal  you  have  the  qualifi- 
cations for  a  phool." — Josh  Billings.  "The  Shock." 
When  a  man's  opinion  of  himself  gives  place  to  what 
others  think  of  him.  John's  John  and  Thomas's 
John. 

No  one  ever  wholly  escaped  the  fool-killer  ;  no  one 


THE    FOOL-KILLER    AND    HIS    MISSION.  135 

ever  deserved  to  escape.  But  let  his  touch  be  the 
warning  touch  of  a  friend,  not  the  grasp  of  a  police 
officer. 

"  Innocue  vivito,  numen  adest." 

"  Cast  away  from  you  all  your  transgressions  where- 
by you  have  transgressed  ;  make  you  a  new  heart  and 
a  new  spirit ;  for  why  will  ye  die,  O  house  of  Israel  ? 
For  I  have  no  pleasure  in  the  death  of  him  that  dieth, 
saith  the  Lord  God.  Wherefore  turn  and  live  ye." — 
Ezekiel. 


* 

.*/ 

Q) 
<0 


LECTURE    LV. 

THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  IDEA  OF  GOD. 
Prof.  Edward  H.  Griggs. 

Constant  change  in  conceptions  of  the  Divine. 

This  change  relative  to  the  development  of  human 
life. 

The  conception  of  the  Divine  never  higher  than  the 
highest  ideal  present  in  any  phase  of  life. 

Hence  the  changing  ideals  of  men  are  reflected  in 
the  changing  thought  concerning  God. 

Thus  there  is  serious  truth  in  the  statement  that 
"  an  honest  god  's  the  noblest  work  of  man." 

Beginnings  of  the  idea  of  God  in  the  first  recogni- 
tion of  power  in  Nature,  and  personality  and  power 
in  man. 

Development  from  these  simple  beginnings. 

The  relation  of  the  Nature  element  to  the  human 
element. 

Ways  in  which  religion  is  determined  by  the  condi- 
tions of  life. 

Nature  religions  grow  up  where  man  is  dependent 
chiefly  upon  Nature. 

Religions  founded  upon  ancestor-worship,  or  the 
worship  of  the  god  of  the  tribe,  grow  up  where  man  is 
dependent  upon  human  strength. 

The  character  of  religion  as  determined  by  the  pro- 
portion of  these  two  elements. 


THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  IDEA  OF  GOD.      137 

Contrast  the  development  of  Aryan  Nature  religions 
with  the  main  Semitic  ideas  of  God. 

Change  in  the  idea  of  God,  as  the  tribe  becomes  a 
nation,  and  the  nation  cosmopolitan. 

The  idea  of  God  as  the  All-Enfolding,  All-Uphold- 
ing Life,  the  natural  outcome  of  Nature-religions. 

The  idea  of  God  as  Ruler  and  Father  the  natural 
outcome  of  religions  founded  upon  the  worship  of  the 
god  of  the  tribe. 

The  comparative  value  of  these  ideas  in  the  religious 
life. 

The  fact  of  constant  change  in  the  idea  of  God  an 
evidence  of  partial  truth  in  every  phase  of  the  belief. 

The  evolution  of  the  idea -of  God  considered  as  the 
progressive  discovery  by  man  of  the  unity,  harmony, 
and  rationality  of  the  universe. 


LECTURE   LVI. 

THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  FAMILY. 

Prof.  Edward  A.  Hogs. 

Tests  of  Family  Types. —  The  biological  test.  The 
family  exists  for  the  maintenance  of  the  species.  The 
diverse  and  conflicting  interests  of  species,  parents, 
offspring.  The  best  family  must  reconcile  the  welfare 
of  the  social  group  with  that  of  children  and  parents. 

The  psychological  test.  The  family  exists  for  the 
promotion  of  happiness.  Should  have  regard  to  the 
freedom  of  matrimonial  choice,  the  often  diverse  and 
changing  likes  and  dislikes  of  husband  and  wife,  the 
desire  of  woman  for  independence  and  self-direction, 
the  thirst  of  children  for  freedom  and  individuality, 
the  helplessness  of  parents  in  old  age,  and  the  exist- 
ence of  parental  and  filial  sentiments. 

Primitive  Sex- Relations. —  Absence  of  love  ;  woman 
seized  by  force,  purchased,  or  taken  from  an  enemy  ; 
no  words  or  marks  of  tenderness.  Absence  of  jeal- 
ousy ;  presenting,  exchanging,  selling,  lending  of 
wives ;  unfaithfulness  an  infringement  of  property 
rights.  No  value  placed  on  purity  ;  laxity  of  the 
young.  No  horror  at  union  of  near  relatives  ;  inter- 
marriage of  brothers  and  sisters  ;  incest  no  vice.  Gen- 
eral irregularity,  indefiniteness,  and  impermanence  of 
connections. 

Early  Family  Institutions. —  Promiscuity,  polyandry, 
polygyny.  Exogamy  and  endogamy.  Kinship  through 


THE    EVOLUTION    OF    THE    FAMILY.  1F,9 

the  female  line.  The  matriarchate.  Competition  of 
family  institutions.  Survival  of  the  best  family  or- 
ganization and  of  the  best  organized  groups. 

The  Monogamic  Family. —  Superiorities.  Definite- 
ness  of  relationships.  Multiplied  family  ties.  Greater 
integration.  Superior  productiveness.  Less  mortality 
of  offspring.  Aids  political  stability.  Reduces  family 
dissension.  Gives  dignity  to  woman.  Fosters  marital 
love.  Evokes  filial  affection. 

Divorce. —  Is  marriage  sacrament,  contract,  relation, 
or  conduct  ?  The  rising  tide  of  divorce.  Its  causes. 
Woman's  chance  to  earn  money  ;  woman's  growing 
habit  of  thinking  ;  higher  ideals  of  married  life  ;  rash 
marriages  ;  the  exaltation  of  the  individual. 

Evils  :  No  home  life  for  the  children  ;  encourages 
reckless  marriages  ;  cloaks  adultery  ;  removes  motive 
to  mutual  adaptations. 

Benefits  :  Arms  outraged  womanhood  ;  breaks  hate- 
ful ties  ;  remedies  matrimonial  mistakes  ;  confers  free- 
dom, and  happiness  through  freedom. 

The  Patriarchal  Family. —  Primogeniture  ;  descent  in 
male  line ;  agnation.  Unlimited  authority  of  the 
father.  Subjection  of  women  ;  of  children.  Joint 
property  and  responsibility  of  the  family.  Kinship 
and  religion.  Kinship  and  politics. 

The  Status  of  Woman. —  Inequality  of  dress,  educa- 
tion, occupation,  amusements.  Woman's  sphere.  The 
rights  women  want.  Right  not  to  marry,  to  earn  her 
own  living,  to  enter  the  professions,  to  get  due  wages, 
to  be  esteemed  professionally,  to  fit  herself  by  study, 
to  have  access  to  clinics,  laboratories,  lectures,  librar- 
ies, to  get  recognition  by  diplomas.  Right  to  marry, 
to  control  her  person,  to  hold  property,  to  simplify 


140  THE    EVOLUTION    OF    THE    FAMILY. 

housekeeping,  to  have  or  not  to  have  children.  Right 
to  paint,  design,  read,  study,  write,  investigate,  explore, 
sing,  play,  debate,  lecture,  preach,  plead,  travel,  row, 
hunt,  fish,  climb,  drive,  etc.  ;  in  brief,  to  enjoy  life. 

Status  of  Children. —  Young  America.  The  rights  of 
children.  How  affected  by  the  rapid  development  of 
America.  Limited  by  the  child's  lack  of  knowledge, 
its  lack  of  power  of  self-support,  and  its  lack  of  self- 
control. 

Kinship. —  Use  and  abuse  of  relatives  ;  nepotism  in 
politics  and  business.  Familism  defeats  the  ends  of 
justice,  condones  wickedness,  serves  the  upper  classes 
at  the  expense  of  the  lower,  constitutes  a  tacit  conspir- 
acy against  society.  Familism  and  feudalism,  aristo- 
cracy, social  exclusiveness.  Familism  and  conserva- 
tism. Effect  of  democracy  on  the  family  spirit. 

Kinship  a  social  filament.  The  family  a  mutual 
insurance  company  ;  promotes  sense  of  solidarity ; 
gives  courage,  hope,  incentive  ;  favors  discipline  and 
obedience  ;  lightens  the  burdens  of  the  state.  Kinship 
as  a  basis  for  industrial  association,  social  intercourse, 
charity,  and  beneficence. 

The  basis  of  family  spirit.  Old  roof  trees  ;  historic 
homes  ;  portrait  galleries  ;  libraries  ;  mementoes,  relics, 
heirlooms  ;  visits  ;  reunions.  Familism  and  wealth. 

The  decline  of  family  spirit.  Few  historic  homes  in 
America.  No  roof  tree.  Dispersion  of  members  of  the 
family.  Migration.  Rootlessness  of  American  life. 
Small  local  attachment ;  love  of  "moving"  ;  new  no- 
madism. Drifting  into  different  social  strata,  different 
occupations,  different  kinds  of  life.  The  American 
family  and  the  American  state. 


LECTURE   LVIL 
SAVING  TIME. 

"The  gods  for  labor  give  us  all  good  things. "- 
Epicharnus.  Fact  of  experience.  Nothing  of  worth 
for  other  price.  Temporary  loans  always  charged 
heavy  interest.  "  By  their  long  memories  the  gods 
are  known."  The  "gods"  the  personified  forces  of 
Nature.  Human  strength  depends  on  our  acting 
with  them.  He  who  knows  the  will  of  the  gods  can 
trust  all  and  fear  nothing.  He  who  defies  them  wields 
a  club  of  air. 

Progress  through  self-activity.  In  saving  of  time. 
Law  of  acceleration.  Degradation  results  from  loss  of 
time.  Law  of  retardation.  Drudgery  of  civilization  ; 
doing  more  than  one's  part  because  others  do  less. 

Most  of  poverty  due  to  unwillingness  or  inability  to 
pay  price  of  wealth.  No  one  should  take  out  of  life 
what  he  does  not  put  in.  Each  gets  what  he  pays  for. 
Gods  give  not  all  good  things  to  same  man.  Each 
must  choose.  Who  has  earned  right  to  choose  is  satis- 
fied with  choice.  He  who  wastes  time  comes  in  for 
last  choice.  Leisure  of  life  spent  in  advance  ;  interest 
on  borrowed  time  to  pay  to  hardest  of  creditors.  De- 
generacy of  gilded  pauperism  as  of  hopeless  poverty 
associated  with  wasted  time.  Danger  of  future  not  in 
power  of  rich,  but  in  weakness  of  poor.  Weakness  and 
waste  carry  misery  to  all  joined  to  them  in  industrial 


142  SAVING    TIME. 

alliance.  Evil  influence  of  desire  to  gain  something 
for  nothing. 

Only  the  very  strong  can  resist  weakening  power 
of  unearned  rewards.  But  one  fortune  to  earnest 
man  :  that  is  opportunity.  Opportunity  comes  to  him 
who  deserves  it.  Growing  belief  that  day  of  hard 
work  has  past.  That  government  should  provide  each 
man  reserve  force,  won  in  the  past  by  thrift  and 
energy.  Day  of  relaxation  not  arrived.  "  Time  never 
comes  when  it  will  do  to  kick  off  duty  life  a  worn-out 
shoe." 

Burden  of  oppression.  Burden  of  whisky,  tobacco, 
dirt,  and  idleness.  Farmers  around  patent-medicine 
venders.  Swarms  of  idle  men  around  every  fool- 
killer's  nests.  Bird-lime  of  habitual  idleness  on  their 
feet.  They  will  never  get  away.  Burden  of  taxes 
slight  compared  with  burden  of  shiftlessness.  Waste 
of  machines  to  save  time  when  time  is  wasted  after- 
wards and  machine  left  to  rust.  Waste  of  bad  roads  ; 
waste  of  loitering.  "  Poor  folks  have  poor  ways." 

Those  who  add  nothing  to  economic  value  best  sup- 
ported in  asylums  at  public  cost.  Why  not  a  great 
state  hospital  for  all  men  with  valueless  time  ?  Ap- 
propriate salons  for  the  idle  "  four  hundred  "  ;  for  the 
rest  a  great  court-yard  covered  with  sawdust,  with 
dry-goods  boxes  where  they  may  sit  the  whole  year, 
talking  politics  to  music  of  hand-organ,  and  watching 
trains  go  by.  Rest  of  world  could  take  world's  work, 
with  higher  taxes,  but  with  gain  of  open  streets,  clean 
houses,  closed  saloons,  silent  demagogues,  pastures  free 
from  weeds  and  thistles. 


BAYING    TIME.  143 

Land  of  Manana.  Everything  put  off  till  tomorrow. 
Time  is  short.  Not  much  done  if  all  is  saved.  Noth- 
ing if  all  is  wasted.  Grim  humorist's  remark,  "  We 
shall  be  a  long  time  dead."  He  who  is  active  earns 
the  right  to  sleep.  Earth  "  rolls  away  as  a  scroll," 
taking  with  it  all  limit,  all  environment.  The  "  rest 
is  silence." 


LECTURE  LVIIL 
THE  EVOLUTION  OF  THE  COMMON  MAN. 

Government  in  interest  of  those  governed. 

To  secure  justice,  security,  individual  development ; 
to  conduct  enterprises  of  mutual  advantage  which 
serve  people  better  than  if  conducted  for  private  pur- 
poses. 

Our  history  began  in  Europe.  Rule  of  strength  and 
superstition  ending  in  rule  of  nobility  and  church. 
Law  of  primogeniture  succeeding  force  ;  but  not  main- 
taining ability. 

The  schools  arose  from  these.  Higher  first.  Paris, 
Oxford.  Higher  education  of  noblemen  and  clergy- 
men. Learning,  manners,  skill  with  sword,  and 
music.  The  lute  and  the  sword. 

For  the  priest.  Skill  in  debate.  Philosophy. 
Classics.  Spiritual  exercises.  The  scholar  a  by-pro- 
duct ;  used  in  training  gentlemen  and  priests. 

"  God  said,  I  am  tired  of  kings, 

I  suffer  them  no  more  ; 
Up  to  my  ear  the  morning  brings 

The  outrage  of  the  poor. 
Think  ye  I  made  this  ball 

A  field  of  havoc  and  war 
Where  tyrants  great  and  tyrants  small 

Might  harry  the  weak  and  poor." 


THE    EVOLUTION    OF    THE    COMMON    MAN.  145 

America  ;  the  land  of  the  common  man,  uncoddled 
by  luxury,  uncrushed  by  oppression,  untainted  by 
charity.  Sons  of  "him  that  overcometh." 

"  The  wisest  men  to  make  the  public  laws."  America 
founded  ;  made  free  by  educated  men.  Their  distrust 
of  people,  ignorant,  uncouth,  prejudiced  ;  no  virtue  in 
multiplication  of  ignorance.  Voice  of  people  the  voice 
of  God.  Voice  of  irresponsible  ignorance.  Voice  of 
mob.  Voice  of  mob  that  of  demon.  Mob  conscious  of 
power,  not  of  responsibility.  Elderkin  Waldo. 

Their  distrust  of  aristocracy,  immoral,  inactive, 
prejudiced.  Decay  of  luxury  and  idleness.  Brains 
used  and  sifted.  Red  rags  shaken.  Samuel  Adams. 

Representative  government  on  trial.  No  divine 
right  in  republicanism  or  in  Americanism.  Will  fail 
if  it  deserves  failure.  Will  get  nothing  it  does  not  de- 
serve. Must  fail  if  it  fails  to  secure  wisdom.  The 
wisest  men  do  not  make  the  public  laws.  Growth  of 
civilization  growth  of  its  parasites.  "  Heir  to  all  the 
ages  I "  ;  so  are  the  enemies  of  good  government. 

Representative  government ;  choice  of  those  that 
think  as  I  do.  Those  whose  interests  are  mine  ;  those 
attend  to  my  interests.  Representatives  as  attorneys. 

Great  problems  to  solve.  Can  republic  meet  them  ? 
Is  it  fit  only  for  corn  and  cotton  prosperity  ?  Is  our 
backbone  wilting  ?  Is  the  "  Caucasian  race  played 
out"? 

Weeping  and  wailing.     Days  of  1862. 

Why  are  "  all  the  common  men  so  grand,  and  all  the 
titled  ones  so  mean  "  ? 

Moral  questions.  Heart  of  people  beats  responsive. 
All  questions  at  last  moral  ones. 


146  THE    EVOLUTION    OF    THE    COMMON    MAN. 

A  right  and  a  wrong  to  every  question.  In  long  run 
must  be  settled  right.  Else  comes  up  again  and  again. 
The  highest  wisdom  is  the  only  wisdom,  not  the  wis- 
dom that  carries  elections. 

"They  enslave  their  children's  children  who  make 
compromise  with  sin,"  or  with  ignorance. 

Slavery  ;  how  the  question  rose  for  settlement.  John 
Brown.  Lincoln. 

Tariff.     Finance.     Paternalism. 

There  is  a  right  settlement.  There  is  no  other.  A 
representative  government  must  be  one  of  wisdom. 
Government  is  education.  But  government  must  fur- 
nish education.  The  children  of  the  future  must  meet 
these  questions.  Else  not  met.  Else  our  republic  will 
go  down  as  others  have  in  u  unreason,  anarchy,  and 
blood." 

Hence  duty  of  civic  training.  In  real  patriotism. 
To  know  is  to  back  knowledge  by-action. 

Duty  of  higher  education.  No  longer  clergyman  or 
gentleman,  but  every  man.  Educate  your  rulers. 
Why  we  should  "  vex  at  the  land's  ridiculous  misery." 

Industrial  problem  confronts  us.  Hastened  by  arti- 
ficial stimulus,  waste,  carelessness.  Bad  blood  of  im- 
migration. Dead  past  not  buried  its  dead.  Flung  on 
our  shores. 

Danger  not  in  power  and  greed  of  rich,  but  weakness 
of  poor.  Coxeyism  a  painful  exhibition  of  it. 

Industrial  problem  solved  only  by  better  men  and 
women.  This  generation  cannot  be  helped.  Save  the 
children.  Waste  none  of  them.  Purpose  of  kinder- 
garten, industrial  school,  university,  of  all  worthy 
schools.  Not  to  make  conditions  easier  ;  easy  enough 


THE    EVOLUTION    OF    THE    COMMON    MAN.  147 

now,  if  they  were  just.  To  make  men  and  women 
master  of  conditions.  This  by  giving  each  one  reserve 
force. 

1.  Thrift  ;  a  virtue;  may  not  always  be  such,  but 
will  be  for  our  day,  and   till  Anglo-Saxon  race  is  for- 
gotten. 

2.  Skill. 

3.  Intelligence. 

4.  Character. 

5.  Reputation. 

6.  Love. 

7.  Family  ties. 

Men  without  reserve  unwise  and  would  be  ground 
into  dust  even  in  Utopia.  Unskilled  laborer.  Not  do 
more  than  bucket  of  coal  and  bucket  of  water.  Scarcely 
more  effective  than  these. 

A  nation  can  be  made  up  only  of  men  and  women 
who  have  something  to  lose  by  waste,  lawlessness,  op- 
pression. Such  as  these  cannot  be  oppressed. 

Of  all  reforms,  the  real  one  is  reform  in  schools. 
To  meet  every  real  need  of  people  and  to  give  every 
child  a  reserve  force  to  hold  place  in  the  world.  To 
every  one  without  it  a  place  should  be  given  where 
his  race  can  become  extinct  with  least  possible  suf- 
fering. 

"  My  will  fulfilled  shall  be 
In  daylight  or  in  dark. 
My  thunderbolt  has  eyes  to  see 

Its  way  home  to  the  mark."—  Emerson. 


BOOKS  RECOMMENDED. 

Agassiz :  Essay  on  Classification. 

Ammon:  Die  Naturliche  Auslese  Beim  Menschen. 

Bagehot :  Physics  and  Politics. 

Bergen :  The  Development  Theory. 

Brooks :  Heredity.    The  Genus  Salpa. 

Chambers :  Vestiges  of  Creation. 

Cope :  Origin  of  the  Fittest. 

Darwin:  Origin  of  Species.    Descent  of  Man.     Expression  of 

Emotions  in  Man  and  the  Lower  Animals.     (Etc.) 
Dugdale :  The  Jukes. 
Ellis :  The  Criminal. 
Fiske:  Excursions  of  an  Evolutionist.    (And  other  collections 

of  essays.) 

Galton :  Hereditary  Genius. 
Garner :  The  Speech  of  Monkeys. 
Geddes  and  Thompson :  Evolution  of  Sex. 
Giddings  :  Scope  and  Method  of  Sociology. 
Hseckel :  History  of  Creation. 
Huxley:  Lay  Sermons.     (And  other  collections  of  essays  and 

addresses.) 
Ibsen:  Gjengangere. 
Jordan:    Science    Sketches.       Essays    in     Popular      Science 

Monthly. 

Keeler:  Evolution  of  Colors  of  Birds  (Introduction). 
Lamarck :  Philosophic  Zoologique. 
Lankester :  Degeneration. 
Le  Conte:  Evolution  and  Christianity. 
Lyell :  Principles  of  Geology. 
Malthus :  Theory  of  Population. 
McCulloch :  Tribe  of  Ishmael. 
Morgan :  Animal  Intelligence. 


BOOKS    RECOMMENDED.  149 

Osborne :  Contemporary  Evolution  of  Man.  Recent  Problems 
in  Heredity. 

Powell :  Our  Heredity  from  God. 

Ritchie:  Darwinism  and  Politics.  Pauperism  in  the  Light  of 
Natural  Selection. 

Romanes:  Darwin  and  After  Darwin. 

Ross :  Turning  Towards  Nirvana. 

Schurman :  Ethical  Import  of  Darwinism. 

Spencer:  Factors  in  Organic  Evolution.  Data  of  Ethics. 
Synthetic  Philosophy.  Insufficiency  of  Natural  Selec- 
tion. (Etc.) 

Stephen:  Ethics  of  Evolution. 

Tyndall :  Floating  Matter  in  the  Air. 

Wallace:  Darwinism. 

Ward :  Practical  Nature  of  Dynamic  Sociology.  Present 
Status  of  the  Mind  Problem.  Psychic  Factors  in  Evolu- 
tion. Weismann's  Concessions. 

Warner:  Evolution  of  Charities.  Statistical  Determination  of 
Causes  of  Poverty. 

Weismann:  Essays  on  Heredity  (two  series).  The  Germ 
Plasm.  All-Sufficiency^of  Natural  Selection. 

White:  Warfare  of  Science. 

Whitman:  Biological  Lectures  (at  Wood's  Holl). 


aiOLOGY 

LIBRARY 
THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


